Origin of the tin ingots from Uluburun

It largely remains an open question of how much Alexander knew about the lands he set out to conquer. The answer or answers keep amazing me. 

Imagine that Alexander was familiar with the trade routes of the precious minerals like copper and tin that existed nearly one thousand years before he was born. Today, we would say it is rather obvious but is it? 

Merchants were always very innovative and perseverant in exploring and finding new markets for their goods to be sold at the highest prices. The shipwreck of Uluburun was a true eye-opener, exposing the variety of ware from distant countries that were traded mainly around the Mediterranean. 

In my earlier blog, The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun, I mentioned that the ship was on its way from Egypt to the Black Sea when it sunk off the coast of Uluburun in modern Turkey. It carried, among others, 10 tons of copper ingots from Cyprus and an unspecified number of tin ingots from Persia. 

It was lengthy to bring the cargo from the Uluburun ship to the surface, as it took 22,430 dives. The precious finds are now safely exhibited inside the Museum of Bodrum Castle, surrounded by lively reconstructions of the ship’s haul. I somehow missed spotting the tin ingots as I focused on the copper and glass ingots instead. 

It is common knowledge that copper and tin are needed to make bronze. Since the second millennium BC, bronze has been in high demand to create tools and objects of prestige, but most of all for weapons. It is noteworthy that the Uluburun ship held enough metal to supply swords to 5,000 soldiers! 

A recent study published in The Past established that two-thirds of the 105 tin ingots originated from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, and one-third was traced back to Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. These two countries are roughly 3000 kilometers east of Uluburun! 

[Map: provided by Michael Frachetti/Washington University in St. Louis]

During the Bronze Age, the mines of Central Asia were local operations led by small mobile villagers. Tin from the Musiston mine traveled over rugged and rough terrain to Haifa - a distance of more than 3,000 km – before it was shipped across the Mediterranean.

Dating Kampyr-Tepe, Alexandria-on-the-Oxus

Kampyr-Tepe, ancient Alexandria-on-the-Oxus, whose foundations go back to the 4th and 3rd century BC, has been continuously excavated by Edvard V. Rtveladze and Alexei N. Gorin. They have concentrated on the citadel and the city proper with its striking Hellenistic entrance gate (see: Alexandria on the Oxus is at Kampyr-Tepe).

Alexander copper coins

By now, the citadel has yielded several Hellenistic coins that shed light on daily life in the city. Altogether, 30 coins of interest have been retrieved, mostly small-denomination copper coins. Two of them belong to King Antiochus I and 28 to the Graeco-Bactrian kings. Among them were rulers like: 

Antiochus I (281-261 BC)

Only two Seleucid coins were found in Kampyr-Tepe, and both were chalki (χαλκι, meaning copper) of Antiochus I, one minted in Babylonia (Seleucia-on-the-Tigris) and another one in Bactria.

Other examples came to light north of the Oxus River in places such as Afrasiab/Maracanda (see: Afrasiab, ancient Samarkand), Termez, and Bukhara.
 
Diodotus (c. 250-230 BC)
Scholars cannot agree whether Diodotus I or Diodotus II issued the coins. There are four copper coins: two dichalki, one chalkous, and one hemichalkous (half a chalkous). The chalkous was the smallest fraction of a Greek coin; in Athens, one needed eight χαλκι to make one obol. Based on their graphic design, these coins could have been issued by the mint of Bactra or Ai-Khanoum.

Tetradrachm of Euthydemus I

Euthydemus I (c. 230-200 BC)
Ten copper coins of Euthydemus I were found in Kampyr-Tepe, among which seven dichalki and one chalkous. Some of these coins have been extremely useful for dating the city’s buildings. Euthydemus I coins are the most common type found in northern Bactria, and six χαλκι are known from the Oxus Treasure (see: The Oxus Treasure, pieces Alexander must have known).
 
Euthydemus II (c. 190-185 BC)
Coins with the effigy of Euthydemus II are scarce. Some χαλκι, dichalki, and trichalki cuprum-nickel coins were found in Kampyr-Tepe, together with copper dichalki and trichalki.

Demetrius I (c. 200-185 BC)
Kampyr-Tepe has yielded one Demetrius obol and several copper χαλκι, dichalki, hemichalki, and trichalki.
 
Eucratides I (c.171-150 BC)
Eucratides is very much present in Kampyr-Tepe with seven coins, i.e., one drachm, one octuplus (a copper obol), and five obols. The obols belonged to the beginning of Eucratides’ reign when he started using his new title Megas, Great. One of these obols has been important to date when the fortified walls of the acropolis were last used as it was found in its top layer. It is noteworthy that Eucratides’ obols have also been recovered from Afrasiab/Maracanda, Bukhara (see: Alexander in Bactria and Sogdiana), and Ai-Khanoum.

Tetradrachm of Eucratides I

A bonus from Kampyr-Tepe was the find of two hitherto unknown coins of Heliocles and imitations of Demetrius I and Eucratides. Counterfeit is of all times!
 
Heliocles I (c. 139-129 BC) drachm imitation
The exact dates of Heliocles’ reign are not known. This drachm raises questions because of the mistakes in the inscriptions and the sloppy engraving of the letters. It may well be one of the first imitations.
Another drachm of Heliocles has surfaced in Takhti-Sangin, which may have been the source of the Oxus Treasure (see: The Oxus Treasure, pieces Alexander must have known).
 
Heliocles III (1st century BC) imitation
This king is so far unknown among the Seleucid or Graeco-Bactrian coins. Two coins with his bust were made according to Hellenistic traditions, but the shape of the letters on the coin’s inscription is problematic, especially the square omicron. The square version of the omicron first appears on Indo-Greek coins circulating at the end of the 2nd /beginning of the 1st century BC. The tradition continued until the last Indo-Greek King Hippostratus, who ruled over western Punjab.
It is quite possible that these coins were issued locally for Heliocles III, who shortly ruled over (northern) Bactria.
 
Demetrius drachms - imitation
Besides the abovementioned copper coins, two rare imitations of a Demetrius drachm have been unearthed. They were minted using a different die and showed distortion of the prototype. It has been possible to establish that they were issued in Bactria.
 
Eucratides obol - imitation
Among the Eucratides’ coins found at Kampyr-Tepe, one obol is an obvious imitation. The inscription on the obol is distorted and illegible, and the depiction of the ruler’s head is stylized compared to the real thing.
 
It is noteworthy that all the above finds and considerations treat coins from surface finds in Kampyr-Tepe, not from archaeological diggings. As in other Bactrian and Sogdian cities, the problem is that their remains are buried under thick layers of deposits hampering excavations.
 
Hellenistic coins unearthed from the banks of the Oxus River may suggest that the river played a significant role in the transportation and exchange of goods.

[For the above illustrations, I used my own pictures taken at the Numismatic Museum of Athens, because I lost the link to the reference photographs. We always stare at gold and silver coins, and I had no idea that copper Alexander coins ever existed. My pictures of Euthydemus and Eucratides are both tetradrachms, i.e., made of silver in Bactria].

Getting around in the Nile Delta

Speaking of the Nile Delta, we obviously mean the embouchure of the river Nile where its waters mingle with those of the Mediterranean Sea. 

The problem, however, is to picture the ancient cities and harbors along that coastline. There are several elements to be taken into account. 

Historically, we best know the role played by Alexandria and Pelusium, situated on opposite sides of the Delta, roughly 250 km apart. 

[From Pinterest]

Pelusium, about 30 km south of modern Port Said, was looking to the East. This city was the entrance gate for conquerors coming from the east. Alexander entered Egypt through Pelusium, as did the Hittites and Persians before him. For the Egyptian pharaohs, it was their gateway to the lands on the eastern Mediterranean. The city played an essential role as a transit station for the goods coming from and going to the lands around the Red Sea (see: The fame of elusive Pelusium). 

Alexander founded Alexandria after he returned from visiting the oracle in Siwah. It arose on the most westerly end of the Delta, on the Canopic Branch of the Nile. The city was intentionally oriented towards Crete and Greece, creating a close trading route with his homeland.

The Greeks had already established thriving trade emporiums in the area. Best known is Naucratis, settled as early as the 7th century BC (see: Egypt, land of the free for ancient Greeks?) As mighty Egypt allowed them to operate a lucrative business, even granting them special privileges, Naucratis eventually became a melting pot of Greek and Egyptian art and culture where they lived in harmony with each other. In its heydays, it was home to at least 16,000 people who appear to have lived in high-rise buildings of three to six floors high, not unlike the mud-brick houses we encounter today in Yemen. 

Archaeological research has found proof that the Canopic Branch of the Nile was navigable all the way down to the heart of the city. However, Herodotus gave us the impression that the freight from the ships arriving from the Mediterranean was to be transshipped into barges which would sail to reach Naucratis (see: An update about Naucratis). 

A look at the above map illustrates that the vessels heading for the harbor of Naucratis had to sail an extra distance from the Mediterranean. Alexandria was obviously more accessible. 

[Mosaic from Madaba, Jordan, showing the Nile with Pelusium]

Another major port was Heracleion, which the ancient Egyptians called Thonis, founded back in the 8th century BC. Known more commonly as Thonis-Heracleion, the site has been discovered under ten meters of mud near modern Abukir Bay (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt and Underwater excavation at Heracleion still ongoing). The above map shows Thonis/Thanis on a more easterly branch of the Nile, closer to Pelusium. Recent excavations have exposed 64 ancient beautifully preserved shipwrecks and more than 700 anchors. Heracleion reached its peak between the 6th and the 4th century BC. 

Halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, Ptolemy II Philadelphus founded Taposiris Magna around 280-270 BC. The harbor played a significant role on the trading route for the goods from the east arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from the Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). Alexandria, built on the headland between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis, claimed taxes on the goods that transited through the city until the 7th century AD at least (see: Taposiris Magna in Egypt). 

The Egyptians had founded the city of Marea, as highlighted on the map, in the 7^th century BC. It actually lies on the southern shore of Lake Mareotis, modern Lake Maryut, and 45 kilometers southwest of Alexandria. Speaking of strategic locations! 

The last major city in the Nile Delta is Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, which Alexander saw in full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks (see: Buried secrets of Heliopolis)! 

This religious center was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. 

For centuries, every single Pharaoh made it to the sacred city of Heliopolis, where the gods would confer him their power. When Alexander, who fully understood the importance of this ritual, followed suit, he was accepted by the Egyptians as their new Pharaoh.

How thermal water preserves bronze statues

The little-known town of San Casciano dei Bagni, some 160 kilometers north of Rome, made headlines after archaeologists discovered more than two dozen statues and several statuettes from Roman times.

Thanks to the local thermal water quality, the statues were in a remarkable state of preservation. They depicted Greek and Roman gods and goddesses such as Hygieia and Apollo that stood in a sanctuary before they were plunged into these thermal waters. Scholars assume this happened as a ritual that occurred around the 1st century AD. The idea behind this ritual was simple: you give to the water hoping the water gives something in return. 

Archaeologists remarked that it was pretty unusual that statues for this kind of offering were created in expensive bronze. They generally were made in terracotta. This practice may indicate that powerful local families ruled this elite settlement, as documented in the Etruscan and Latin inscriptions they left behind. 

The precious bronzes were found underneath a hoard of nearly 6,000 coins – a mixture of gold, silver, and bronze specimen. 

The statues have been dated to the period between the 2nd and the 1st century BC when the region underwent the transition from Etruscan to Roman rule. It is thought that in these days of conflict, the sanctuary of the Baths became a multicultural and multilingual haven of peace. 

These precious artifacts are said to be the most important find since the Riace bronzes. After being restored, they will make their way to a new museum in San Casciano for all to see.

Alexandria: Past Futures

Bozar in Brussels is presently hosting an exhibition about Alexandria that will run until January 8, 2023. 

The event covers the period from the foundation of the city by Alexander the Great in 334 BC to the 4^th century AD. After that date, Alexandria lived as a small fishing port slowly sinking into the Mediterranean Sea. At the same time, the proud remains of the city disappeared under layers of sand and dust. 

Occasional Byzantine and Arabic travelers left us sketchy descriptions of the scant remains and the monuments built on top of the antique ruins. 

When Napoleon landed here in 1798, only a few columns hinted at earlier streets, and obelisks stood as reminiscent city markers. During this campaign, the Stone of Rosetta was discovered, a three-lingual decree issued in 196 BC, i.e., during Ptolemaic rule. The first two texts were written in ancient Egyptian, using hieroglyphs and Demotic script; the bottom section repeated the text in ancient Greek. We have to thank the Frenchman Champollion for deciphering the hitherto secret hieroglyphic signs, disclosing the history of a world that had been hidden for almost 13 centuries. 

The exhibition opens with a lovely bronze statuette of Alexander the Great, initially on horseback. I know the piece from many photographs, but this is the first time I have seen it on display. It is on loan from the Fondation Gandur pour l'Art, Geneva, and has been dated to Ptolemaic times between the 3^rd and the 1^st century BC. In my eyes, it is worth the visit by itself! 

Central in this exhibition is the Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. There is an interesting cardboard model made in the 19^th or 20^th century, but also two color drawings presented in a manuscript from the 16^th century by Muhammad Ibn-Abdal-Rahim kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris. The famous lighthouse is evidently pictured on several coins, like the beautiful example of Hadrian. On the reverse, Isis is holding a sail in front of the lighthouse (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, départment des Monnaies). 

A separate showcase is occupied by a delegation of the Ptolemaic dynasty. We recognize Berenice II, 246-222 BC, from Hermopolis Magna (Musée de Mariemont); a limestone Ptolemy III, 3^rd century BC (Antikensammlung in Kassel); and a well-polished basalt head of a Roman Emperor, 30 BC-68 AD (Louvre). 

Close by, there is the marble head of a charming Berenice II from the 3^rd century BC that displays traces of paint (Kassel Antikensammlung). She is set next to a Colossal limestone Royal with his typical Egyptian headdress but with a face executed in pure Hellenistic style. A proof, if necessary, of the blending of both cultures. The Royal has been dated 305-222 BC (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum). 

Nothing is left of Alexandria’s Museum or its precious Library, meant to be a university and research center where great minds met and exchanged their knowledge. The list of philosophers, scientists, mathematicians, astronomers, geographers, physicians, botanists, and zoologists seems endless. 

For example, the exhibition highlights Ctesibius of Alexandria, who invented all kinds of complicated machines, including a water clock and a fire engine. 

Alexandria was famous for its high-standard craftsmen whose art showed in everyday objects such as those exhibited here and dating from the 1^st and 4^th century AD: a glass aryballos, beaker, fial, a few drinking glasses, and a finely polished onyx skyphos. Most remarkable, however, were the fascinating mosaics using tiny tesserae, making the scene look like a painting! The originals were apparently too delicate to be moved, but the visitor is treated to an excellent photograph instead. It is worthwhile to take a very close look! 

The Egyptian goddess Isis clearly lives on into Roman times, often assimilated to Aphrodite. Two remarkable original frescos from the 1^st century AD found in Pompeii illustrate her importance (National Archaeological Museum of Naples). 

The exhibition ends with a huge photograph called The Flood of the Nile, found in Palestrina, north of Rome. It is one of the largest Hellenistic mosaics from the 1^st century BC that once adorned a floor of a building on the Forum. It is a bird’s eye view of Egypt with illustrations of its natural history. The top of the picture corresponds to the sources of the Nile in Ethiopia and Nubia, populated by wild animals with their names written in Greek. At the center, we see a succession of temples in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman traditions. The bottom covers the busy Nile delta and harbor. The original mosaic is home to the National Archaeological Museum of Palestrina. It perfectly illustrates the excellent craftsmanship of Alexandrian artists working in Italy. 

Alexandria: Past Futures presents some 200 artifacts, which for the greater part come from lesser-known museums like that of Mariemont in Belgium, the Kassel Antikensammlung in Germany, the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, the Fondation Gandur pour l'Art of Geneva in Switzerland, the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris, the National Archaeological Museum of Palestrina in Italy, and several others.

Peritas, Alexander’s dog

Alexander had a dog named Peritas. So much is certain, but when it comes to defining the breed or race of this dog, we quickly find ourselves among legends and mysteries. 

The story goes that Alexander received the dog as a puppy. The name Peritas seems to mean January in the Macedonian language. The dog generally is defined as a Molossian, a breed of fierce fighters that no longer exists and could be closely related to the Mastiff. It was especially loved for its speed, strength, and bravery. Other sources tend to believe that Peritas was a greyhound that Alexander brought up himself. 

The Molossian dog would fit the image of the conquering Alexander perfectly. It is said that he was an enormous, powerful dog that could fight as hard as any soldier. He would not hesitate to attack lions or elephants. Virgil confirms his talents: “Never with [Molossians] on guard, need you fear for your stalls a midnight thief, or onslaught of wolves, or Iberian brigands at your back.”  

Either legend or truth, Peritas would have jumped to bite the lip of an elephant about to attack Alexander during the Battle of Gaugamela.  

Another story is being reported from India during Alexander’s battle with the Malians. The soldiers had been slow to follow their king, exposing him to the full force of the enemy’s assault. Alexander was hit by a poisonous arrow while scaling the city wall (see: About the Death of Alexander the Great). Apparently, Peritas held the enemy off until the Macedonians joined up with Alexander. Mortally wounded, the faithful dog crawled to Alexander, laid his head in his lap, and died.  

In a more elaborate version, Leonnatus sent the dog to Alexander. The obedient Peritas valiantly fought his way through the Malians till he reached his badly wounded master and defended him from the attacking enemy until the Macedonian troops arrived. The deadly injured Peritas crawled to Alexander, laid his head in his lap, and died.  We will probably never know what happened exactly, but a statue of Peritas was erected at the entrance to the city that bears his name.  He enjoyed the same honors as Alexander’s horse, Bucephalus. 

Based on the wide number of ancient dog tombstones, we can safely say that Greeks kept their pets as their trusted companions and protectors – not unlike what we do today.  

Alexander is no exception as a dog lover. He kept a vast number of dogs that accompanied him in hunting and in war or were simply keeping him company. Which one of them is Peritas remains a mystery. I personally picture Peritas as being a greyhound, meaning he was not the hero so honored in India.  

The Greeks have left us many tombstone inscriptions in which they openly grieved the loss of their faithful companion. They cried and mourned them as we still do nowadays. One particularly poignant tombstone reads, “You who pass on this path, if you happen to see this monument, laugh not, I pray, though it is a dog’s grave. Tears fell for me, and the dust was heaped above me by a master’s hand”. 

Homer early on mentions Argos as the loyal friend of King Odysseus. The faithful dog recognizes his master when he returns home after twenty years. Odysseus, who wants initially to remain incognito, does not respond to his dog's affection, after which Argos lays back and dies.

Socrates took his philosophy so far as to attribute wisdom to dogs since they can distinguish their owner’s friends from their enemies. Diogenes (see: Alexander meeting Diogenes in Corinth) went as far as calling himself The Dog because "I flatter those who give me anything and bark at those who give me nothing." He had quite a sense of humor!  

Xenophon’s dog was called Impetus. He stated that a dog’s name was chosen with great care. Ancient Greeks are particularly fond of names that expressed power, courage, appearance, or speed.  In short, nothing new under the sun!

Who were the Parthians?

The name of the Parthians often raises questions, and their territory is hard to define. Scholars have established that the tribe of the Parthians may be closely linked to the Scythians who lived southeast of the Caspian Sea. 

The Parthians appeared in history after the death of Alexander the Great, when Seleucos inherited the largest portion of the lands he had conquered in the east, from the eastern Mediterranean to Bactria and India. Seleucos kept the existing Persian governing system of satraps in place, and at an early stage, Parthia became one of its satrapies. 

Seleucos founded the Seleucid Empire and soon discovered that ruling such a vast territory was a nearly impossible task. As the empire weakened, the Parthians revolted and established their independence. 

The first king of Parthia was Arsaces, who came to power in 247 BC. Not for long as the Seleucid King Antiochus III managed to reconquer Parthia in 209 BC from Arsaces’ son, the new king Arsaces II. For some unknown reason, Antiochus did not want to kill his enemy and established him instead as satrap. This did not sit well with the Parthian nobility, and as soon as Antiochus left for Syria, they deposed Arsaces II and proclaimed Phriapatius as their new king in 191 BC. 

Meanwhile, the Romans subdued Antiochus III according to the Treaty of Apamea signed in 188 BC. Now that the Seleucid King was no longer a thread, Phriapatius’ son, Phraates, took heart and conquered the territories between Hyrcania in the east and Media in the southwest. He created a solid base for his brother Mithridates, who succeeded him on the throne in 171 BC. 

At this point, Parthia started a new era. Mithridates conquered the Bactrian kingdom in 168 BC and then turned west. He took Media from Phraates in 151 BC and then focused on Mesopotamia. He captured the capital city of Seleucia, followed by Babylon in 141 BC and Susa three years later. 

Phraates II, Mithridates’ son, continued the fight for power. A worthy successor to his father, but his power was short-lived as he soon died in an attempt to stop a Scythian mutiny. From then onward, Parthia would be torn by successive uprisings and battles. After the death of Phraates II, Parthia was ruled by his uncle, Artabanus I, who crushed several revolts in his short life. 

His son, Mithridates II, in turn, would become Parthia’s greatest ruler (124-91 BC). He strengthened his position in Bactria, Mesopotamia, Characene (on the Iran-Iraq border where Alexander had founded Alexandria-on-the-Tigris, modern Charax Spasinou), and the realm of Babylon. He also annexed the lands of Albania and Armenia, together with the vital Syrian city of Dura-Europos on the Euphrates. Roughly, the Parthian Empire now stretched from the Mediterranean all the way to China! 

No wonder Parthia was very much coveted by the rising Roman Empire and lost several territories, including Armenia. The tables were turned in 53 BC when Crassus invaded Parthia near Carrhae (see: Harran, better known under its Roman name Carrhae) and lost. Rome suffered a severe psychological blow. The situation worsened when Marc Antony was defeated in 32 BC in an effort to keep hold of Armenia. After the decennia of constant fighting, Emperor Augustus secured a peace agreement with King Phraates IV in 20 BC. Instead of fighting each other, both rulers agreed to unite their efforts against enemies outside their borders. 

No treaty lasted forever, and after several skirmishes back and forth, Emperor Trajan invaded Mesopotamia in 115 AD, looting the capital cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. At about the same time, Parthia was invaded on its eastern border by the Kushans, who established their empire in Bactria. 

However, two years later, Parthia, now ruled by Vologases IV, was invaded by Hadrian, Trajan’s successor. Lucius Verus, the adopted son of Marcus Aurelius, followed suit and sacked Seleucia and Ctesiphon once again. The Parthians managed somehow to expel the Romans, but like a Jack-in-the-Box, they returned in 198 AD. 

This time, Emperor Septimius Severus invaded Mesopotamia and marched down to take the Parthian-held cities of Seleucia, Babylon, and Ctesiphon. It makes one wonder how often cities are destroyed and rebuilt over the centuries. 

I now better understand the significance of the Severan bridge I crossed many years ago on my way to Mount Nemrud. At that time, I wondered what could have been so important in this god-forsaken, steaming hot land to need a bridge! It crossed the Cedere River, a tributary of the Euphrates. It is possibly the second largest still existing Roman bridge with a length of 120 meters and a span of 34 meters. Two Corinthian columns of 9-10 meters guard either side of the bridge. One set is erected in honor of Septimius Severus and his wife Julia Domna, and the other for their two sons, Caracalla and Geta.

 

The weakened Parthian Empire finally collapsed when it was overthrown by King Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid Empire, in 224 AD. That is another story altogether (see: Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia).