The Seikilos Epitaph, continued

The text and music of the Seikilos Epitaph was found on a column-shaped stone in Aydin, western Turkey, and dates from 200 BC/100 AD. This column can now be admired at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

It so happens that a copy of this artifact was created for the temporary exhibition Horses and their Riders that was organized in 2012 at the Allard Pierson Museum in Amsterdam. That’s where it caught my attention.

In my blog about this unique relic, Revealing ancient Greek music, the Seikilos Epitaph, I discussed these rare inscriptions and inserted a YouTube “re-edited” version of this song. This piece truly deserves our full attention for it is the only complete music piece ever discovered.

The Seikilos Epitaph remains popular and just recently, I was redirected to another YouTube version from 2014 where the music is played on a harp.

Other modern renditions of this music have been discussed at large in my blog Reconstructing Ancient Greek music, an impossible task?

An eye for beauty in spite of the daily challenges

On a lovely autumn day, I was enjoying a picnic high up the hills among the ruins of Tlos, overlooking the Xanthos Valley. My mind automatically drifted away to Alexander who must have ridden down this very valley towards Patara, Letoon, and Xanthus. I pictured him proudly riding his faithful Bucephalus, who was happily shaking his colorful tassels and twinkling bells.

In my pleasant mental picture, I imagined a good-humored Alexander enjoying the ride and the beauty of the land with Hephaistion at his side. No history book will mention this, of course. The landscape, the roads, or the weather conditions are no topic unless they reach extremes.

The few such exceptions our historians picked up are, for instance, the blizzards that hit the army on the passes of the Hindu Kush, the never-ending monsoon rains in India, and the flash flood in the Gedrosian Desert. Otherwise, we can only use our imagination and that is not easy since most of us have not traveled to those far away lands.

I feel privileged to have trodden in the footsteps of this great conqueror on several occasions but to truly appreciate what is involved, we would have to venture out on foot. Only a handful of braves have set out on such an adventure. Traveling by plane or car as is common nowadays, does not allow us to experience the impact of the elements. The wind, the rain, the heat or the cold remain blocked until we step outside of our metal cocoon. We miss out on the smells of the land, the dust, the fog, the crispy frost in the air. The most common sounds of bleating sheep, mooing cows, the songs of the birds, and the laughter of children are stifled entirely.

The topic of the weather fully hit me when I drove south along the Zagros Mountains in a relentless dust storm. The sands from Mesopotamia were carried through the air in sweeping gusts. As long as I sat inside the comforts of my vehicle, I only noticed a hazy landscape, but as soon as I left my protective shell, the grains hit me in the face stinging me with thousands of needles. The wind was tearing at my clothes, the sand was crushing between my teeth, and breathing became difficult. Alexander must have known such days. 

The role of the landscape and the climate during Alexander’s campaign became even more apparent to me after reading “The Road to Oxiana” by Robert Byron. This book is a true eye-opener when it comes to envisioning the full scale of his daily challenges.

In 1933, Byron traveled from Damascus to Baghdad and crossed Persia to finally reach Afghanistan one year later.  It is quite exciting to discover that long stretches of his route match the itinerary taken by Alexander more than 2,000 years earlier. The landscape is a commanding factor common in both cases. Then and now, roads run along the same rivers, pass the same oasis and towns, skirt the same deserts and mountains, and use the same passes and goat tracks. I enjoy his descriptions of the many valleys in full spring bloom in Central Asia, where the fiery red poppies rule the fields as they still do in Alexander’s homeland. They are a welcome breather after witnessing the barren deserts with their frequent dust devils whirling around.

Byron hitchhiked on board lorries but also traveled by car or on horseback. Despite modern means of transportation, he did not move much faster than a traveler on foot would. Roads were often impassable because of flooding or flash floods that washed away entire portions including bridges or other rudimentary crossings.

He used old caravanserais when there was no local governor or friendly Brit around to offer him a room for the night. Lodging was more often than not uncomfortable and dirty. He generously recounts the folklore details of such encounters and it seems to me that life has not really changed much since the days of Alexander.

As I read on, I search those landscapes and cities which most likely have seen the Macedonian army marching through. Places like Ecbatana, Persepolis, Pasargadae, Balkh, Kabul, and Peshawar, the crossing of the Elbruz Mountains towards the Caspian Sea, and the perilous trek over the Hindu Kush.

Byron describes a poignant moment as he descends to the Caspian Coast. In a few minutes, the world of stone, sand, and mud he had endured since Damascus turned into one of green-leafed trees and bushes. The everlasting drought made way for moisture as even his body somehow returned to its natural buoyancy. I imagine Alexander and his dust-covered Macedonians must have experienced the same kind of refreshing relief.

In as far as possible, Alexander used the well-maintained Persian Royal Road. Once beyond that network, it came down to finding tracks and trails. It appears that Byron had a rather similar experience and his worst progress was made after he left Persia to enter Afghanistan.

The sudden changes in the weather pattern are widespread in that part of the world, and Byron truly undergoes these extremes. He tells how it rained all night, how the river had subsided but rose again fast, four feet deep at times. Of rain falling like bath-waste turning the road into a river for miles in a row, flooding the desert, and turning every mountain into a cataract. He describes the dark skies as cloud-wracked set against inky jagged hills.

At one time, after passing the Paropamisus, he labors for an hour and a half, ankle-deep in freezing slush, to lever away the rocks blocking the road. Landslides were common, and he mentions how not one but a dozen such landslides prevented him from reaching Kabul overnight. A mile beyond the Shibar Pass across the Hindu Kush which Alexander also used, Byron, hits more landslides, heaps of liquid mud and pebbles concealing large rocks. The crops below the road, already half destroyed by a river of mud, are then menaced by a new spate.

Another exciting feature that is not mentioned in our history books either is the qanats. A very recognizable and ingenious water management system from antiquity that still exists today and is still functioning in some parts of the world. The quality of the river water could not always be trusted but the qanats carried the precious fluid from the snow level high up the mountains or from clean underground water tables (see: The qanats, one of the greatest inventions of mankind).

Earthquakes were another frequent occurrence at every stage of Alexander’s route. Surprisingly, the sudden shaking that rocked tents, as well as men and beast, are never mentioned either. They probably were prevailing events not worth to be talked about.

No, this way of traveling is definitely not for the faint-hearted. Yet Alexander and his brave Macedonians constantly faced the elements. However, I like to believe that many, and especially Alexander had an eye for beauty as well. Byron tells us, for instance, that he reached the most beautiful part of his entire journey at the foot of the Hindu Kush. Of all places! After leaving the river, the road constantly climbed not in twists but followed a succession of steeply sloping saddles leading from ridge to ridge. I have seen pictures of this road in a presentation at the exhibition “Afghanistan, hidden treasures from the National Museum, Kabul” and they entirely match Byron’s description.

On the other hand, flowers must have been plentiful in antiquity creating landscapes that were familiar to Alexander. Nowadays, they have mainly disappeared from our cities and our concrete roads. I fondly recall the Macedonian fields covered with an array of spring flowers ranging from the white chamomile and pink hollyhock to the deep-red poppies and purple wild onions The explosion of colors over the rolling hills felt like a homecoming. The land was pleasantly green, crossed by refreshing clear streams tumbling down from higher elevations under the blue sky filled with fleets of puffy clouds. Yet, I came across the same picture in many other places further east to Turkey and beyond.

Truly, so much, so very much remains to be discovered and disclosed on Alexander’s whereabouts!

How modern is an antique ring?

At first sight, the image shows a gorgeous and very modern ring, a true designer’s piece, enough to raise anyone’s curiosity.

To my greatest surprise, I learn that it belonged to Emperor Caligula, who succeeded Tiberius in 37 BC. This means that the dazzling and breathtaking sapphire ring is almost two thousand years old! Knowing that sapphires are only a little less hard than diamonds, it is incredible that in Roman times craftsmen mastered the skill to cut and polish this stone. What’s more, they even were capable of carving the delicate portrait of a woman on the front of the ring.

Research has revealed that the portrait displays Caligula’s last wife, Caesonia, whose mind was as twisted at that of her husband. 

The ring came up for auction in 2019, together with other jewelry that belonged to the Marlborough Collection. This collection of 800 carved gemstones and cameos was amassed by the 4th Duke of Marlborough in the 18th century. Most jewelry dated from antiquity. By 1899 the gems were sold off, and many pieces ended up in private hands. Sadly, today’s experts only know the whereabouts of approximately one-quarter of the collection.

In this context, a portrait of Marc Antony also seems to have the same provenance. His image is carved in a Roman golden framed sard (a variety of chalcedony). His less bloody love affair with Cleopatra also went down in history.

[Pictures from My Modern Met]

Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor, unraveling the linothorax mystery by G.S. Aldrete, S. Bartell and A. Aldrete

Rather than a history book, Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor (ISBN 978-1-4214-0819-4) is more an analysis of one of the main elements of battle dress in antiquity.

We certainly mentally picture Alexander wearing a linothorax as that is how he is represented on the famous mosaic from Pompeii, now exhibited at the Archaeological Museum in Naples, Italy. On the other hand, when talking about soldiers from the Graeco-Roman era, we tend to see them in cuirasses made of bronze or leather, or in a combination of both.

The linothorax was also mentioned by Plutarch when he described Alexander’s outfit (see: Alexander’s battle outfit).

The matter obviously deserves thorough attention. After all, the lives of thousands of troops depended on proper bodily protection. Alexander would be the first to require the best possible armor as he positioned himself at the head of his army and was always in the thick of the fight.

This book will take the reader through every single step that was required to create a linothorax in antiquity and to recreate one today. To this purpose, the team of authors examined the literary and visual sources available, paying attention to the variety of structural elements as well as the accessories.

They relate the problems and challenges they encountered during their reconstruction of the linothorax, including the choice of fabrics and glues, the basic pattern and its variants, the thickness, and most importantly the comfort and wearability. One of the main requirements, if not the main requirement, was to prove that this garment would efficiently resist the penetration of arrows and withstand the blows of the enemy sword.

Last but not least, they examined the cost involved in making such linen armor. Who would or could make them. How much flax was available and how much work was required to spin and weave the fabric. Also, could the linothorax be produced on an industrial scale?

The conclusions of this intensive and thorough study are very revealing. Amazingly the linothorax turns out to be very practical to wear even in hot climates. It was more waterproof than expected and if the outfit got truly soaked it would dry pretty quickly. Just think of the Macedonians crossing the many hot deserts in Asia and wading through an endless number of rivers. The weight is another important factor and it has been established that a typical linothorax wouldn’t be heavier than 3.5-4 kg (as opposed to a bronze cuirass with an equivalent degree of protection weighing between 8 and 10 kg). If damaged, the linen could easily be repaired and the operation didn’t require specialized skills.

What’s more, the basic skills to make a linothorax, i.e., spinning, weaving, and gluing, were common among almost all inhabitants of the Mediterranean region. The outfit was suitable for mass production as it did not have to fit a specific individual. Because of the ties on the side and top of the garment, it would automatically adjust to the body of the wearer (unlike the bronze cuirass that was personalized for each individual). As pointed out earlier by David Karunanithy (see: The Macedonian War Machine), the outfits could be made available in basic sizes just like today, small, medium, and large.

What may at first sight be seen as a cheap and inferior armor, the linothorax most certainly is a legitimate alternative to the more expensive (and less comfortable) bronze cuirass.

Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor makes captivating and highly interesting reading and proves – if needed – that Alexander and his Macedonians wore the best available armor of their time.

A cast helmet from Central Asia

As a rule, helmets are created using a sheet of metal hammered into the proper shape over a mold. As always, there are exceptions to the rule. And this helmet, which is exhibited in the National Museum of Uzbek History in Tashkent, is one of them.

[Picture from Mainzer Beobachter]

The descriptive label stated that the helmet was found near Maracanda, in the tomb of a Sacae leader. The Sacae lived in the steppes of Central Asia better known by their Greek generic name as Scythians and Sogdians. Livius has composed a thorough overview of these steppe people under the title Scythians/Sacae that provides many interesting details. By the way, it is Livius (Jona Lendering) who brought my attention to this helmet through his blog  Mainzer Beobachter.

In the book The Scythians by Barry Cunliffes, he discovers that this type of cast helmet is inspired by a technique that was customary in China. This example dates from the 6th century BC but became obsolete afterwards.

The story of this cast helmet reminds me of the Achaemenid silver bowl with hollow drop motives from the 3rd-2nd century BC that was found in China in recent years. It made headlines because it had been cast and not hammered as expected, meaning that this piece was really made in China and not imported from the West (see: Alexander's influence reached all the way to China?)

Dr Lukas Nickel from the University of Vienna, Asian Art History (previously from SOAS, University of London), had discovered that besides these bowls and the Nanyue silver box, there were about ten more of such unusual treasure boxes. They were found in different locations throughout China.

This is Hellenism with a twist, isn't it?

So far, we have a handful of artifacts with a Western design. As China has become very active in archaeology over the past decennia, the future looks very promising. Still so much remains unexplored in Central Asia and in the countries on the Silk Road.

Another Lycian tomb unearthed in Myra

Finding Lycian tombs is nothing new, but every excavation deserves to be mentioned. There always is the slim chance to find a grave that has not been plundered, either in antiquity or in more recent years.

[Picture from the Archaeological News Network]

No such luck, however, for this tomb that was unearthed near the ancient city of Myra. As always, it was a chance discovery made by the landowner driving his bulldozer.

Myra (modern Demre) is very rich in Lycian tombs and the visitor simply cannot miss the many hollow eyes staring at him when he heads for the well-preserved theater that is so often visited by the tourists (see: Ancient Myra from Finike).

This tomb counts three doors and exposes one chamber of 5 x 4 meters. It may have counted a second floor but that is not certain.

Since the officials are on the spot, they will continue exploring the area hoping to find more of these elegant Lycian tombs.

Harran, better known under its Roman name Carrhae

Harran is the modern name for Roman Carrhae, where Crassus was crushed by the Parthians in 53 BC. Exploring these ruins, I wonder how much of old Carrhae was left after the Parthians killed 20,000 soldiers and took 10,000 more as prisoners.

Today’s Carrhae is in a dilapidated state where I quickly spot the Forum, some bathhouses, and temples. At the edge of the Forum rises a high square tower from the days of Prophet Mohamed. This is said to be the oldest minaret in Turkey and belonged to the Ulu Cami, i.e., the Congregation Mosque, the oldest university.

I did not expect to find any such remains in Harran as I was heading to see the unique and peculiar adobe constructions with a conical roof topped by a square vent made of the same material. The concept seems 3,000 years old, making me believe that Alexander saw these or similar constructions. These beehives, which were used till the 1980s, date from the 11th-12th century. Today, they are placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. After building dams on the Euphrates, the villagers could now irrigate their fields and raise abundant crops of cotton, tomatoes, and aubergines. Before this irrigation project materialized, they had been constrained to herding goats and sheep. The beehive constructions are, however, maintained as a tourist attraction.

Following eastern hospitality, I am invited to take place on low V-shaped stools in the courtyard's shade. Tea is served by the men, who then withdraw to a corner of the yard. Meanwhile, children are running around, but I see no womenfolk.

I can freely roam in and around the rooms, in fact, one under each dome. As expected, they are cool and probably warm in winter, like Cappadocia's troglodyte caverns. My eyes have to adjust to the dim light since the only daylight is coming through one single window and the vent in the conical roof. The interior is made cozy, with carpets covering the floor and the walls. Low benches set against the walls display colorful cushions, and a few round and square tables fill the center of the room. In the sleeping quarters, I find beds standing high above the ground. The protective parapet has an opening to access the bed. I had noticed a similar contraption, but much higher above ground in the corner of the courtyard. Apparently, they are used during hot summer nights. The only modern touch is electric lighting and flushing toilets which look very much out of place.

The hill on the other side of the adobe settlement of Harran is crowned with a fort. This is where the Temple of Sin, the moon god, stood. But the stones and foundations have been reused for the construction of this fort. From my vantage spot, I have a great view over Harran where women with dark eyes and dark skin move in colorful dresses. Beyond the city, I spot green cotton fields separated by broad meandering waterways, some tributaries of the Euphrates, no doubt. It looks very peaceful as if time had no hold on the place, but the street boys tell me that only yesterday, a formation of warplanes from Iraq flew over. I find this an odd and awkward combination of past and present where there is no room for the present.

When Alexander marched east for his confrontation with Darius at Gaugamela, he passed through Harran. It is here that his scouts reported that the massive Persian army was marching north from Babylon. After giving his troops a few days rest, the king ordered a forced march to the Tigris as he meant to cross the river before his enemy could stop him.

I am hopeful that future excavations will expose much more of this unique city and maybe tell something about Alexander?

Traces of Alexander in Afghanistan

Alexander keeps popping up from the most unexpected corners, even from the occasional encounters on our travels.

As I was once again flipping through Robert Byron’s book The Road to Oxiana, I came across his journal entry of 20  May 1933. Byron had arrived in Bala Murghab six days after he left Herat, and headed north over the Paropamisus Mountains. The modern traveler is expected to cover the distance of some 270 km in about four hours.

Bala Murghab takes its name from the Murghab River, which is the modern name for the Margiana River. It rises in the Hindu Kush, and eventually peters out in the desert around Merv. 

Byron describes how the river seemingly runs towards a mountain wall which, upon closer look, turns out to be a pair of rocky gates crowned by a watch-tower. A strategic point that was recognized already in antiquity. After the river has passed these sentinels, Byron finds a dilapidated bridge to cross the turbulent waters of the Murghab. Initially, the construction had been propped by two stone arches, one of which had been washed away over time and replaced by a wooden suspension.

The interesting part of the story is when he says that according to the Russians, this bridge as well as the watch-tower was built by Alexander. If this is true, it may be a confirmation that the king did indeed detour to Margiana (Merv). In that case, naming the city Alexandria Margiana is entirely justified as discussed in my previous blog Merv, Alexandria Margiana.

[About the picture copied from Flickr: HERAT, Afghanistan--The view from a CH-47 Chinook helicopter during an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)mission, Nov. 30. ISAF is assisting the Afghan government in extending and exercising its authority and influence across the country, creating the conditions for stabilization and reconstruction. (ISAF Photo by TSgt Laura K. Smith)(released)]