The tomb of Alexander the Great

The tales about the tomb of Alexander are countless, varying from pure myth and wishful thinking to serious studies and well-documented analysis. 

In August 2021, I posted a summary of what was known so far: Endless fuss over the tomb of Alexander the Great. Here, I included the name of Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi, who assumed that the king’s mummy was transferred to Siwah as Ptolemy fulfilled Alexander’s wish. In her theory, she ignored the recorded visits of the Roman emperors to Alexander's tomb in Alexandria. 

Liana Souvaltzi started excavating the Temple of Amon-Ra in Siwah in 1989, but in 1995, the Greek and Egyptian governments suddenly blocked her permit without explanation. 

[Reconstruction of what the monument in the Siwa Oasis would have once looked like. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

In my mind, her story was one of many, like the one I posted in October 2024:  Another pertinent theory about Alexander’s Tomb that was another dead-end road.

It now transpires that I missed Liana Souvaltzi's plea published in December 2014, also in Ancient Origins, upon their invitation. The full story can be read in this article. I'm quoting a few of the key arguments hereafter, in italics.

The archaeological site is 15 kilometers west of the Ammon Temple, which is in the town of Siwa. The area where the tomb is located is named El Maraki. The tomb complex covers an enormous area of 12,000 square meters, of which 5,000 square meters were excavated.

From the size of the tomb itself, which is 51m long and has an outer width of 10.25m, it is obvious that it could only have been destined for use as a burial monument for the worship of a very important person, such as a king. The tomb sits on a rock, underneath which lies an enormous gold mine, the first found in the western desert. It consists of an entrance, corridor, and three chambers.

It is a good argumentation and certainly raises questions about the presence of Greek architectural elements in Siwah and the size/purpose of the monument. A link with Alexander is not impossible. However, although the monument she defined as a tomb was colossal, it contained no actual tomb or sarcophagus to prove Alexander's presence. 

[Cleaning up the corridor leading to the tomb. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

There were, however, three inscriptions referring to Alexander:

Finally, we found three different honorary inscriptions written in Greek uppercase letters. The first inscription could be dated from its text to between 290 and 284 BC. The first line of the inscription bore the name ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ΑΜΜΩΝΟΣ ΡΑ (ALEXANDER AMMON RA).

The second inscription can be dated between 108 and 115 BC and is an honorary inscription and was placed by the Emperor Traianus in honour of Alexander, whom he admired and respected as a god.

The third inscription is a fragment which indicates the number of the inhabitants of the oasis and the army, which was a part of the military forces assigned to guard the royal tomb of Alexander the Great.

The discovery of these inscriptions and their meanings was announced in the course of the Italian – Egyptian Congress in Rome on 15 November 1995.

In line with the earlier and later theories that circulate on the tomb of Alexander and its whereabouts, there is the thorough destruction of this Siwah Tomb. The floors, walls, corridors, and decorative elements have been destroyed and turned into a flooded garbage dump. 

Whatever promising tracks scholars and archaeologists investigate to find the last resting place of this great conqueror, they are stopped in their efforts at one point or another. Poor Alexander! He deserves so much more attention, care, and respect.

Who were the Thracians?

A recurrent question that keeps popping up. The Thracians are often seen as a barbarian tribe north of Macedonia. In ancient Greece, everyone non-Greek was labeled as Barbarian and the word does not answer our concept of un-civilized. 

The Thracians had no writing, meaning that we had to depend on what had been described by Greek and later Roman authors. Their works of art, however, are of the highest quality of craftsmanship. The most striking example is the bronze head of King Seuthes III, who ruled from 331 until 300 BC, i.e., after Alexander set out for Asia (see: Seuthes III, King of Thracia).

[Picture from Getty.edu]

The head of Seuthes steels the show of every exhibition. If you live in the Los Angeles area or are traveling that way soon, there is a unique opportunity to see this masterpiece for yourself at the Getty Villa in Malibu from November 4, 2024, until March 3, 2025. The exhibition covers a wide area as announced by its full title: Ancient Thrace and the Classical World: Treasures from Bulgaria Romania and Greece. 

Thracia’s superb gold, silver, and bronze works of art travel the world on many occasions and it is a unique opportunity to explore the many facets of Thracian life in all its forms and shapes. 

I was lucky to discover the Thracian treasures of Bulgaria back in 2002 when Brussels hosted a special exhibition organized by Europalia at the Palais des Beaux-Arts. “L’or des Thraces. Trésors de Bulgarie” turned out to be a true revelation of art going back thousands of years with artifacts in a typical combination of silver and gold. I remember staring in awe at the map of Bulgaria crowded with unfamiliar names of tombs and locations. 

The title of the exhibition at the Getty Villa clearly includes treasures from Romania and Greece. 

I developed Thracian Romania in a blogpost about Dacia, the name given by Emperor Trajan (see: Dacia before Alexander). 

Thracian presence in what’s now eastern Greece is treated in two separate posts, Thracian tomb at Doxipara and What is the Peraia of Samothrace that explores Mesembria. 

For all aficionados, Getty airs a special talk about “Who were the Thracians” on November 19, 2024, at 12 pm Pacific Time via Zoom. 

Happy times ahead!

The city of Alexandria Troas or Alexandria of the Troad

The name of Alexandria Troas has a most confusing name since it is generally thought that the city was founded by Alexander the Great, more so because of the king’s admiration for The Iliad in which Troy played such an important role. Nothing is further remote from the truth. 

[Votif relief of Psyche on a dromedary from Alexandria Troas, 

2nd century BC, Louvre Museum]

According to Strabo the town of Sigeia was founded on this spot around 306 BC by Antigonus-Monophthalmus. The name of Alexandria Troas was given to the city by Lysimachos in 301 BC, as a generous referral to Alexander. It was a double harbor in northwestern Asia Minor and the richest of the Troad and occupied a strategic position near the entrance of the Hellespont. It silted up over the centuries. 

In 188 BC, the Romans declared it a free and autonomous city that counted about 100,000 inhabitants. Emperor Augustus settled a colony of soldiers within its walls and renamed it Colonnia Alexandria Augusta Troas, in short, Troas. He lavishly embellished the city, as did the emperors Trajan and Hadrian a century later. 

Herodes Atticus, best known for his theater at the foot of the Acropolis in Athens, was appointed by Hadrian as prefect of the free cities of Asia in 125 AD, including Alexandria Troas. He may have built the aqueduct that carried water from Mount Ida, although other sources attribute the construction to Trajan. 

Alexandria Troas was surrounded by a 10-kilometer-long city wall, including fortified towers placed at regular intervals. Some parts are still visible today, together with remains of the Roman Baths and the Gymnasium, a Necropolis, a Nymphaeum, the Odeon, the Theater, and a recently discovered Stadium dating approximately from 100 BC. 

The Baths and the Gymnasium were built by Herodes Atticus in 135 AD. They were surrounded by vaulted corridors with marble walls, and water was delivered thanks to the aqueducts on the northeast side of town. The large Baths measured an impressive 123 x 84 meters. Most of the building remained intact until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake in the winter of 1809-1810. The whole project was greatly supported by Emperor Hadrian, as revealed in an inscription found in Hadrian’s Gymnasium in Athens mentioning the emperor as the sponsor of the city in 132 AD. Three more inscriptions unearthed at Alexandria Troas during excavations in 2006 confirm the emperor’s interest and the appreciation of the citizens. 

The Hellenistic theater stood at the highest point of the city, treating the spectators to a sweeping view over the city and the Aegean Sea with the island of Bozcaada.

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion

( continued from Leptis Magna or what Rome must have looked like - Part II)

The city of Leptis Magna covered far more ground than the official buildings I just visited tend to imply. Two major constructions are still waiting for me, the Amphitheater and the Hippodrome. 

The Amphitheater lies approximately one kilometer from the center of Leptis Magna, close to the sea. It has been excavated in the natural rocky depression or possibly an ancient quarry. 

Thanks to an inscription, we know that it was inaugurated by the ruling governor, Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavinus, in his third year in office. He and his deputy dedicated the monument to Emperor Nero, meaning it was finished in 56 AD. 

The Amphitheater measured 57 x 47 meters and would accommodate as many as 16,000 people. Compared to the 50,000 seats in Rome’s Coliseum, it may seem small, but looking at it from the higher ground, it appears more impressive. The elite of Leptis Magna would elect to sit on the southeastern side of the Amphitheater, where they could enjoy a gentle breeze. 

The games were an all-day event. Typically, the early morning starts with animals fighting each other. Around noon, the criminals would be executed, i.e., thrown to the wild beasts. The afternoon was reserved for gladiators of different kinds and named after their equipment. 

In the southeastern corner of this monument stood a temple from the time of Hadrian dedicated to the goddess Artemis. Excavations early in the 20th century yielded a statue similar to the one in Ephesus, which is now exhibited at the Museum in Tripoli.

Closer to the sea are the remains of the Hippodrome or Circus built under Trajan in 112 AD. It roughly runs parallel to the coastline and is 450 meters long and 100 meters wide. Two tall vaulted passageways connected the Amphitheater to the Hippodrome. From my vantage point above, I can clearly see the spina, the central spine of the Hippodrome. Since it is not entirely excavated, the only visible rows of seats are at the far end, seemingly resting on the side of the dunes facing inland. It is estimated it could seat 23,000 spectators. 

Exceptionally, I would like to underscore the beauties of the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli because so many of the most exquisite statues and artifacts from Leptis Magna (and other antique cities on Libya’s coastline) are exhibited there. 

Leptis Magna has a small museum of its own, which collects artifacts whose quality does not rise to the standards of Tripoli. In front of the building stands a beautiful bronze statue of Septimius Severus, created by the Italians in 1940. 

At the entrance of this museum stands a welcoming marble African elephant who lost his trunk. A place of honor is reserved for the original Arch of Septimius Severus reliefs. Otherwise, there are many statues from the Theater and Hadrian’s Baths. In the corner, a group of headless figures in a toga gathers, generally larger than life-size, retrieved from the Old Forum and the Forum Novum Severianum. Rather striking and very lifelike is the face of Isis with inlaid glass eyes. The glassware and other vessels in various shapes and sizes, as well as the small frescos, merit attention. 

We mentally have to put the artwork from this museum and the one in Tripoli back into place. Still, we hardly catch a fraction of the magnificence and wealth Leptis Magna displayed in its time of glory. Picturing the wealth and opulence of Rome is clearly beyond reach!

It is evident that life in Libya has changed since my last visit. I expressed my concern in an earlier blog: Still hope, though scant, for Libya’s cultural heritage, but that was almost ten years ago. Nothing much has transpired since, and it seems the country's cultural heritage is not a priority, yet. I sincerely hope for the best!

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II

(continued from Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I)

At the end of Leptis Magna's Market, the Cardo continues through a rectangular Byzantine city gate to reach the Old Forum resting on Punic remains. 

This Old Forum automatically triggers visions of what may have been visible in Rome! The square is surrounded on all sides by temples, one for every god that matters, it seems. Immediately to the left is a temple that was converted into a church. Clockwise, followed by a portico and altar to Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Liber Pater, the Temple of Augustus and Rome, the Temple of Hercules, and a stele to Caius, son of Hanno. To the right are the Curia and an Old Basilica, in front of which is a small temple to the goddess Cybele. In the middle of this carefully paved Forum is a Baptistery. 

The sand-covered street behind the Old Forum is an invitation to climb to the dune top, where the beautiful deep blue Mediterranean shines as it has done over the centuries. All is calm! 

Today, the Wadi Lebda is only a small river or a dry riverbed, but in its heyday, it was Leptis Magna's harbor, complete with quays and jetties. We can still see the holes into which poles were inserted and used by the ships to tie their anchor ropes. This port was short-lived. The river had been very skillfully diverted, and several dams were built upstream to prevent the sand from siltting up the harbor. However, the harbor mouth was oriented in such a way that the undercurrent from the sea drew the sand in, and the harbor silted up anyway. Surprisingly, great master builders like the Romans could make such a mistake! 

Yet, this port appears as if it could be used again once the harbor is filled with water! The quay follows the river's course with a curvature towards the sea. There are also downward steps at regular intervals to enable the loading and unloading of the ships. At the head of the peninsula stood a lighthouse. 

In the days of Septimius Severus, an impressive colonnaded street, 420 meters long, ran parallel to the Wadi Lebda from the city center down to Leptis Magna's harbor. 

This Via Colonnata was 40 meters wide and paved with white marble slabs. It was flanked on both sides by a ten-meter-wide portico, reducing the central avenue to 20 meters. The Stoas were supported by 125 grey-green cipollino columns resting on a white marble base and crowned with white marble Pergamese capitals. The red-tiled roofs provided shade in summer and protected the citizens from the rain in winter. It must have been a sight for sore eyes! 

What remains today is a non-inspiring dirt road with bits of columns and carved stones. But the side street provides a helpful visual tool as half a dozen similar cipollino columns still stand tall. 

Behind these columns rises the high outside wall of the Severan Basilica, built by Septimius Severus and completed by his son, Caracalla, in 216 AD. This two-story monument measures 92x40 meters. The hall is crowded with two rows of two-story monolithic columns made of red Aswan granite set on white marble bases and carrying white marble Corinthian capitals. 

Like all Basilicas, this was originally a court of law converted into a church in Byzantine times. Quite unique in the present case is an apse at each end. Both apses are framed by white marble pilasters and half-columns decorated with high reliefs of plants and animals. On the north side are carved figures of Dionysus with satyrs and Maenads, whereas the south side shows the Twelve Labors of Hercules. On a sunny day, the depth of the skilled artwork really shows. In the middle of the apses are two substantial red granite columns with white marble Corinthian capitals topped with griffons that supported the roof. Like all other buildings in Leptis Magna, the walls were constructed using local limestone that was readily available. The roof would be made of wood. There may well have been windows underneath that roof to let the daylight in. At the center of the Basilica, there is also a kind of pulpit that is only partly visible. In an adjacent room on the south side of the Basilica, the Byzantines built a cruciform Baptistery. 

This Basilica is another illustration of the glory of Rome, considering its size, the use of precious marble and granite, and the craftsmanship of the details, of which there are many. 

The Basilica's west side corresponds to the Imperial Forum's short side, the Forum Novum Severianum, a gigantic square of 60x100 meters. The high walls of the surrounding buildings accentuate the size. Originally, a portico ran around the Forum, supported by Pergamese columns as found on the Via Colonnata. They are only visible on the Basilica side, where part of the portico is occupied by a row of shops. 

The beauty of this Imperial Forum may be found among the arches that span the top space between the columns. The area above each column and between the arches is filled with roundels depicting reliefs of the head of Medusa or a Nereid. A row of arches has been reconstructed on the left (long) side of the Forum, resting on Pergamese capitals. In total, at least 73 of these large medallions have been found. All Medusa heads are different and look at you from deeply furrowed eyebrows. A Nereid head is clearly placed at the end of the row. 

Opposite the Basilica on this same Forum stood the Temple of the Gens Septimia, dedicated to the worship of the Septimius family. It is said to have been built following the typical Roman pattern, high on top of a podium, and decorated with columns of red Aswan granite. No wonder this Forum is meant to be a replica of Trajan's in Rome. Septimius Severus' message was clear: his native city could not be inferior to Rome! 

I arrive at the other end of the Via Colonnata, in a vast oval square originally surrounded by the 72 columns of the Stoa. Overlooking this space stood a Nymphaeum several levels high. The back wall was entirely covered with marble, and the many niches were decorated with the most graceful statues. In and around the fountain stood many columns and other marble artifacts. The large water basin that ran alongside the street had several fountains. The scant remains still testify to the monumentality of this construction. 

Opposite the Nymphaeum is the empty space of an unpaved Gymnasium. The adjacent Baths of Hadrian skillfully fill the area towards the Wadi Lebda and the Nymphaeum. 

Those who have seen the Baths of Caracalla in Rome will recognize the sense of grandeur, although the remains of these thick walls are less telling. The bathing areas themselves, however, are better preserved: the Frigidarium, Tepidarium, and Caldarium, all carefully lined with white marble. Unique are the two Sudatoria connected to the Caldarium. This was a kind of sauna where pipes distributed the heat along the walls and under the floor. The complex also had two pools with adjoining latrines, and the pavement consisted of large white marble tiles. 

Unlike Roman constructions elsewhere made with bricks, the local limestone of Leptis Magna was also used for these Baths. Another striking feature is the porches on either side of the Tepidarium, where the sloping walls ensured more efficient air circulation and ventilation. Most statues from these Baths have been moved to the Museum in Tripoli – worth a visit of its own! 

[Read more at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion]

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I

Much of Roman Leptis Magna is still standing, disclosing monuments such as the Theater, the Market and Forum, the Nymphaeums, Baths, Temples, Arches, and Basilicas. Outside the Byzantine city walls are the large Amphitheater and the Circus. Living quarters are hardly noticeable as they generally remain hidden under the sand. 

The entrance to the site of Leptis Magna is only revealed once we reach the steps leading down to the Roman street level. Here stands the imposing Arch of Septimius Severus, a quadrifrons, an arch with four equal sides. Each side straddles the intersection of the roads, the north-south Cardo leading to the Old Forum and the Decumanus Maximus connecting Carthage to Alexandria. 

Although the Italian archaeologists did their best shifting through the many broken pieces, this reconstructed arch from 202 AD looks different from what one would expect. For instance, the eight peculiar pointed triangles on top of the Corinthian columns are totally out of place. The original marble reliefs in honor of Septimius Severus and his family are copies of the originals at the Leptis Magna and Tripoli museums. It is one of the strangest contraptions I've ever seen! This quadrifrons was clearly meant to impress as it stood on a pedestal three steps above the Roman street level. It is believed to be the work of craftsmen from Asia Minor. 

From here onward, the Cardo is lined with undefined buildings till it reaches two honorary arches. One to Emperor Tiberius and the other to Emperor Trajan. This last one was erected in 109 AD to celebrate his granting the city the status of colonia. 

Next to Trajan's Arch is a large rectangular building, the Chalcidicum. It is surrounded by a portico and flanked on either side by a Nymphaeum. Between them, a series of wide steps leads to a podium crowned with four Corinthian columns. The wall behind these columns is covered with an inscription where the word Chalcidicum appears. The name may refer to the trade of metals or the building's bronze doors. An outer colonnade surrounds this Chalcidicum, erected by a local dignitary during the reign of Augustus in 11-12 AD. 

At this point, my attention is drawn to the many columns standing high on top of a circular wall at the back of the Theater. This Theater is the calling card of Leptis Magna, as it appears in every travel brochure. It is awe-inspiring, with a diameter of 70 meters and its slow-rising rows of seats to accommodate 10,000 visitors. The columns above the seating area have been partially restored to illustrate the connection point of the covered portico that covered the Theater. At its center stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres, a typical Roman concept to bring play and religion together. It yielded a statue of Tyche (Fortuna), which is now at the Museum of Tripoli. 

Of particular interest is the bilingual inscription in Latin and Punic carved on the lintel above the side entrances below the stage. It tells us that this Theater was built during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and donated by a wealthy citizen, Annobal Rufus. The Latin text mentions that he was the son of Himilchon and held the position of Consul Suffectus (the consul who completed the term of a deceased consul) and of flamen (priest devoted to the worship of a single god, meaning that he came from a patrician family).

Imp Ceasare Divi f(filio) Aug(usto) pont(ifice) max(imo) tr(ibunicia) pot(estate) XXIV co(n)s(ule) XIII patre pat(riae) Annobl Rufus ornator patriae amator concordiae / flamen sufes praef(ectus) scr(orum) Himilchonis Tapapi f(ilius) d(e) s(ua) p(ecunia) coer(avit) idemq(ue) Dedicavit

Interestingly, the imperial figure of Augustus was left out of the Punic text! 

The Dioscuri and Castor and Pollux statues once stood on either side of the stage. The marble balustrades were decorated with the heads of Heracles and Liber Pater (god of fertility and wine, later identified with Dionysus). Altogether, 133 statues have been retrieved and moved to the Museums of Tripoli and Leptis Magna. The many statues and decorations are indisputable and could rival only Rome. 

Immediately behind the podium of the Theater is a strange trapezoidal square, the Porticus post scaenam, delimited by tall gray granite columns. It surrounds the Sanctuary of the Divine Emperors or Dei Augusti, a shrine to the emperors, who were considered gods after their death. The Monument to the Severans has been added as an extension. 

Unlike the Romans, today's visitors to the Theater can thoroughly appreciate the contrast of the deep blue sea with the many cipollino and granite columns of the Theater and the Porticus. 

Nearby is the Market from 8 AD, an actual luxury square financed by the same Annobal Rufus. The master builder is said to have taken his inspiration directly from Rome, which he had visited. The main attraction here is the twin round kiosks in the middle of the market square. The slabs between the columns served as sale counters for fish, meat, vegetables, and fruit. They look like today's Market, but I can't imagine the unavoidable stench of fish and meat on a blistering hot day like today! Both kiosks were surrounded by octagonal porticos with columns made of cipollino marble with white marble Ionic capitals for the first and Pergamese for the second. We must mentally recreate the now-lost wooden table tops resting on the marble feet in the shape of dolphins. 

Noteworthy are the panels and lists where customers can check the correct measurement of their goods. One such panel shows three standard measures of length: the Punic cubit, which equals 51.5 cm; the Graeco-Roman foot, of 29.6 cm; and the Ptolemaic or Alexandrian cubit, which is 52.5 cm long. All measurements are divided into halves, thirds, fourths, eighths, sixteenths, and multiples. Who would have thought there were strict laws regulating the weights and measures in antiquity? The original panel is displayed at the local museum, but having a copy in situ is worthwhile! There are also large stone blocks with round and square holes where the correct quantity of grain and the like could be checked. Bronze control stamps confirm their official approval. Enough to leave anyone speechless! 

Two tetrapylons with ship reliefs on their base stood between these lovely buildings, once holding statues of the city's wealthy shipowners. Another statue honored a certain Porphyrius, who brought five live elephants to Leptis Magna. Just imagine them walking through here! 

The luxury of Leptis Magna is beyond anything I've ever seen, and I find it hard to believe how Rome could surpass this beauty, grandeur, ostentation, and extravagance. And yet there is more to come. 

[Read further at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II)

Dacia before Alexander

Dacia is a Roman name. When Emperor Trajan conquered the territory of what is now Romania in 106 AD, he called it the province of Dacia Felix. The new capital was Ulpia Traiana Sarmisegetusa, i.e.,  today’s Sarmizegetusa Regia.

The Dacians, however, were known to the Greeks as Getae, the very people Alexander chased across the Danube in 335 BC (see: Crossing the Danube River and The King is dead, long live the King). After the king’s death, Lysimachos, who became king of neighboring Thracia, waged repeated wars against the Getae without success. He was even captured by their king, who forced him to withdraw from the Lower Danube in 292 BC. 

Interestingly, Strabo states that although the language of the Dacians is the same as the Getae's, the name applies to their location. The Getae lived close to the Pontus Euxinus, the Black Sea, and the Dacians, closer to Germany and the sources of the Ister, the Danube River. They somehow managed to co-exist if they did not mingle with earlier settlers. 

In the second half of the 7th century BC, Ionian Greeks had already emigrated to the shores of the Black Sea to escape the expansion of the Persian Empire. The most prominent group of colonies came from Miletus, who, in 630 BC, founded their first town Histria at the mouth of the Danube (see: The many colonies of Miletus). The Greek colonists remained in Dacia until 46 AD. 

Before them, the nomadic Scythians driving their cattle ever further west from the steppes of Central Asia were in regular contact with the Getae/Dacians from c. 550 to 250 BC. The Scythians left us no writing, but the artifacts found in and around their occasional settlements testify of highly skilled artists. 

Three years ago, in 2020, the Gallo-Roman Museum in Tongeren, Belgium, organized a wonderful exhibition Dacia Felix taking us back in time. The selected objects came from various Romanian museums, particularly the National Museum of Romanian History in Bucharest, which most of us will not readily visit. It offered a unique opportunity to see these unique artifacts brought together. 

Particularly striking are the Getae’s parade helmets with eyes to ward off the evil spirits. One such helmet is made of gold and is decorated with mythological figures. It has been dated to 425-375 BC. Another example from 400-300 BC is made of gilded silver. Although these were ritual helmets, it is easy to imagine how piercing eyes would scare off the enemy if worn in close combat! A silver gilded greave with a tattooed face dated 340-330 BC is another example of Getaen art influenced by the Scythians and the Greeks. 

The smaller gold and silver artifacts also call for attention. There are appliques otherwise known from Scythian art used to decorate the horses’ bridles and harnesses. Some specimens even show Persian influences (400-300 BC). 

The Getaen men of power, such as high priests and kings, wore finely crafted bracelets. A solid gold spiral specimen with ram heads (500-400 BC) weighs no less than one kilogram! Another eye-catcher is a gold diadem with panthers and flowers (400-200 BC). 

To illustrate that the Getae were not limited to today’s Romania, there are two very similar goblets on display, one silver gilded from neighboring Bulgaria, 400-300 BC, and the other found in Romania made in silver and dated to 340-330 BC. 

The Celts, in turn, occupied the fertile lands of Dacia roughly from 320 until 175 BC, i.e., after one group of warriors had sacked Rome in 387 BC. These tribes never intended to settle but were constantly hunting for precious goods. Although the Celts shared the same language and religion, they roamed in separate bands along the northern borders of Thracia, Macedonia, and Italy. 

As expected, the Celts left us weapons, helmets, and decorations for horse harnesses, mainly from their grave sites. The most remarkable legacy is an iron helmet holding a falcon on top dated from 250-175 BC. The chief who wore it must have impressed his opponents with his stature, as the bird made him look much taller. Besides, the realistic falcon acted as a symbol of power.

Dacia sometimes stretched beyond Romania, including northern Bulgaria, southwestern Ukraine, and Hungary east of the Danube. The rich testimonies of Scythians, Getae, and Celts are left undocumented as these peoples did not have any writing. Their heritage is solely based on archaeological excavations, which yielded a wide array of artifacts, including precious jewelry and decorative items.

It should be noted that the battle depicted in Trajan’s Column in Rome reflects the emperor’s sacking of Ulpia Traiana Sarmisegetusa in 106 AD after the Dacians failed to respect the peace conditions of their surrender. Something worth remembering during our next visit to the eternal city!