Preparations to sail down the Indus

The history of Alexander’s conquests in India usually relates the facts in a succession of events without paying much attention to the king’s thorough planning and preparation ahead. To sail down the Indus was an expedition by itself, which is generally ignored.

Alexander withdrew in style from the Hyphasis. After building twelve altars to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis). 

Hence, the army marched to the Hydaspes, where Alexander had founded the cities of Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala (see: The edge of the world was not reached). According to his instructions, many ships had already been assembled, but he needed to build many more before sailing south. Within two months, the entire fleet was ready. It consisted of eighty thirty-oared galleys, troop carriers, flat-bottomed boats for horse transport, circular tubs, local river boats, and enormous grain-lighters for supplies. The latter is a forerunner of the modern LASH ship or Lighter Aboard Ship that loads and unloads barges, as still used on the Indus.  Known locally as zobruks, they have a shallow draught and huge sail, perfectly suitable in strong currents. Each vessel could hold more than two hundred tons of grain to feed the army on their voyage to the Ocean.

This was a massive operation that Alexander had planned meticulously. He selected the Phoenicians, Carians, Cyprians, and Egyptians who served in his army. From them, he chose men with nautical skills for crews and rowers. Other experts were selected from among the islanders (from the Aegean), Ionians from Asia Minor, and people from the Hellespont.

Imagine this armada of up to 2,000 vessels (half the flotilla that crossed the Channel on D-Day!), moving at the shouts of the coxswain (steersman) as his rhythmic call was echoed by the high riverbanks mingled with the noise of splashing oars. 

Another factor worth considering is the number of troops needed to be moved. Back on the Hydaspes, 35,000 fresh soldiers had swollen Alexander’s total manpower to a massive 120,000! His cavalry, at this point, has been estimated to be some 15,000. However, not all the men and horses boarded the ships; neither did the impressive baggage train.

Alexander organized the army in three divisions as he would personally lead the fleet from his Royal galley with the support of his shield-bearers guards, all the archers, and the Companion cavalry – totaling 8,000 men. Hephaistion would march along the east bank of the Hydaspes while Craterus would lead the west bank with part of the infantry and the cavalry. Hephaistion took with him the bulk of the fighting troops and 200 elephants. Their instructions were to march together in advance and wait for the fleet.

The king took command after having performed extensive sacrifices to his ancestral gods and the deities of the river and Ocean. With a golden goblet, he poured a libation into the river from the prow of his ship – entirely in style with the solemn occasion. 

As soon as the trumpets signaled the departure, the voyage started in regular order. It was a hazardous enterprise, but the king had instructed how many baggage vessels were to sail abreast and the place for the boats carrying the horses and the ships of war. All vessels were to keep their distance and stay in formation, adapting their speed accordingly. Given the different sizes of boats ranging from warships and baggage vessels to horse transports, they individually required accurate steering and high alertness of their pilots. The purpose was that the ships would not fall out of each other or sail down randomly. Nearchus of Crete was appointed admiral of the fleet, with Onesicritus of Cos as his second and helmsman of the Royal flagship. 

Even after the monsoon rains had stopped, the annual flow of the Hydaspes was two times faster than that of the Nile or three times that of the Euphrates and the Tigris combined. The current would increase notably as the river narrows, particularly at the confluence with the Acesines. The roaring of the water could be heard miles ahead as the surface roughened.  

At last, the fleet made it across the narrows where the two rivers met, and the banks receded. The stream slackened, and Alexander found a protected spot on the right bank to moor his ships safely. Here, the men could take a break and make the necessary repairs before moving onward. 

Alexander was about to enter the land of the warlike Malians, who had been preparing for the confrontation.

Punjab, Land of Five Rivers

One close look at the map will make you realize that Punjab is an enormous alluvial plain that counts far more than the five main rivers. Situated at the foot of the Himalayas, it covers a surface of over 50,000 square kilometers. Its watershed is fed by snow and glacial meltwater from the world’s highest peaks, like the Karakorum, the Hindu Kush, and the Himalayan Mountains.

The Achaemenids had only conquered the lands west of the Indus, meaning that once Alexander crossed this mighty river, he entered uncharted territory. Modern historians do not spend much time following the king’s march further east and his countless river crossings but instead focus on battlefields, sieges, and other ruthless fights. However, each and every crossing, including the numerous tributaries, is an enormous logistical enterprise. It makes you wonder how many of these rivers, streams, and waterways the Macedonians had to cross by any means available. That alone is a gigantic task!

After taking the Aornos Rock, Alexander headed for the Indus River, where Hephaistion had worked hard to build a pontoon bridge across the river as well as a fleet partly new and partly reassembling the elements which had been carried along. The crossing of the Indus took place at Ohind, modern Hund, in north-western Pakistan (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind).

Once his troops reached the opposite bank, Alexander headed for the capital Taxila at the junction of the major trade routes from Bactria, Kashmir, and the Ganges valley. This was the realm of Omphis, the son of King Taxiles, who had visited Alexander while he was still in Bactria and died before he arrived in India. Besides sending provisions to Hephaistion during the construction works, King Omphis welcomed Alexander with 200 silver talents, 3,000 oxen, 10,000 sheep, 30 elephants, and 700 Indian cavalry and 5.000 infantry.

The next river Alexander had to tackle was the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum), where the famous battle against King Porus took place (see: The Battle of the Hydaspes and the genius of Alexander), a masterpiece and a genius enterprise that was never surpassed.

As casually mentioned by Arrian, Alexander marched on through the populous region, taking some thirty-seven towns and many villages as the natives surrendered without much protest. Their lands were graciously handed over to King Porus.

The next obstacle was the Acesines River (modern Chenab), which was so broad and swift that Ptolemy found it necessary to mention it in his biography used by Arrian. It is hard to simply imagine a three-kilometer-wide river and how much one could see of the opposite bank. The Macedonians used boats to get across, but navigation among the rocks was a true challenge, and many were broken up, and the men were swept away by the current. The floats for the baggage and horses fared much better as they were far more shallow than the boats, but the trip was nevertheless one more logistical challenge.

The Hydraotes River (modern Ravi) was another major river on Alexander’s path, and as he marched through these lands, most Indian tribes surrendered without resistance. Those who refused were, of course, taken by force. Sangala was such an exception (see: The siege of Sangala). The tribes near the city had sought and found refuge inside its strong walls. Eventually, Sangala was taken by an assault in which up to 17,000 Indians were killed while over 70,000 were taken prisoner.

[Map from Wikimedia by Apuldram - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0]

The last of the five major rivers was the Hyphasis River (modern Beas). Here, the Macedonians bluntly refused to follow Alexander any closer to the edge of the world despite his eloquent and fiery speech. This was a severe blow to the king’s ego and pride, but he issued the order to retreat after three days.

Obviously, Alexander withdrew in style, and after building twelve altars (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis) to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around, having to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again. He sailed down the Hydaspes to ultimately reach the Indus River.

Some scholars consider Alexander’s experience in Punjab as useless and a waste of time, but it is hard to believe that he would do anything without reason. He would not endanger the life of his Macedonians lightly, and he certainly would not have invested nine months of his life on a sole whim. Judging Alexander’s conduct with today’s eyes is impossible. Besides, we only have sparse historical documentation to support his decision-making.

The edge of the world was not reached

After the Battle of the Hydaspes, Alexander proceeded deeper into Punjab, literally meaning The Land of Five Rivers. He had already made it across the Indus and the Hydaspes. However, there were still the Acesines River (modern Chenab), the Hydraotes River (modern Ravi), and the Hyphasis River (modern Beas) to tackle.

We know he had excellent scouting parties and always relied on local people's knowledge. Still, I can't help wondering if the messages were interpreted or understood correctly here in India.

The idea first occurred when Alexander was confronted with the monsoon rains, which he had underestimated as transpires from historical sources. Rain was, of course, not going to stop him, but these rains were far heavier and more disruptive than anything he knew or expected. The fact that the monsoons were seasonal recurrences escaped the attention of Alexander – or, to say the least, he did not take the matter as seriously as he should. We know that Nearchus was marooned in Pattala for several weeks before having the favorable winds to set sail and meet up with Alexander along the coast of the Gedrosian Desert is one such surprising timing mistake. This is very much unlike Alexander, and the question should be asked whether he really knew or understood the phenomena.

Crossing Punjab, a succession of five mighty rivers swollen by the melting snows from the Himalayas may have been tuned down by the interpreters, the locals, or both. Alexander did not give it the attention required, which cannot be ascribed to negligence. It could be explained that after witnessing countless rivers, among which the Nile, the Euphrates, and Tigris, and the Oxus and the Jaxartes – all major fast-flowing rivers in their own right – it was hard to imagine anything more threatening. Indeed, what could be worse? For instance, in Punjab, he had to deal with a succession of five such mighty and extremely wide rivers. For example, it can be noted that at the points where the army crossed these wild waters, the Indus was about 500 meters wide and the Acesines nearly 3,000 meters!

The Macedonians, by now, were seasoned troops functioning according to a well-oiled discipline whether they were on the march, fighting off some enemy, setting up camp, or crossing a river. They just did it, inspired and encouraged by their king. But eight years of constant warfare had scarred the souls of even the most faithful troops.

The Hyphasis River was one river too many, and the Macedonians stopped in their tracks, bluntly refusing to continue. As usual, Alexander fell back on his excellent oratory skills and tried to rekindle his men's enthusiasm by reminding them of the past glories since the day they had left Greece and all the riches they had accumulated since. They were now so close to the world's edge, and soon all of Asia would be theirs. To Alexander's amazement, his words fell on barren ground and were blown away by the wind. A painful and deadly silence followed his fiery speech.

[Picture from Alexander movie by Oliver Stone]

Coenus, who lately had led the significant cavalry charge at the Hydaspes, was pushed forward by the troops to formulate their resentment. He appropriately reminded his king that many soldiers who had come across the Hellespont eight years ago had been sent home as invalids. Others no longer fit for service had been left behind in newly founded cities. Others still had died in combat or from disease, and the survivors were often in shattered health as they all were marked by years of battle wounds and scars.

In fact, I think that the Macedonian spirit died on the killing ground along the Hydaspes. It had been such an outrageous carnage for so little profit as there were no grand cities to be plundered like previously in Persia. Besides, Alexander had given Porus his empire back, depriving his men of the incentive to face the next challenge or engage in another battle. The continuous downpour of the monsoon rains and the fanatical resistance of the Indians cannot have improved their mood. The army squarely refused to march on and demanded to return home. Coenus' words were received with loud applause, a sign of their far-reaching power.

Deeply offended, Alexander withdrew to his tent, licking his wound, no doubt. The non-negotiable decision of his army seriously hurt his ego and pride. When he emerged from his quarters three days later, he gave the orders to retreat, much to his dismay. This happened in September 326 BC.

It makes me wonder how much, in the end, the Battle of the Hydaspes was a victory for Alexander. His men had given their all, and they had nothing more to offer except love for their king.

Crossing the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers

River crossings are generally considered mere accessory events in Alexander's campaign, but they are widely underestimated. On their way east, the Macedonians had to cross countless rivers, streams, and rivulets. Each of these, however, came with its own challenges: some were mere sandy flats while others were filled with rocks; some banks were steep and slippery while others were marshy and swampy; some streams were lazy water ribbons while others were torrential white waters; and some were hazardous while others were placid.

Over the years, Alexander crossed many significant rivers, among which the most important are the Danube, the Nile, the Euphrates and the Tigris, the Oxus and the Jaxartes, and finally, the Indus, including the entire Punjab, i.e., the Hydaspes (Jhelum), the Acesines (Chenab), the Hydraotes (Ravi), and the Hyphasis (Beas). This time, let us concentrate on the Euphrates and the Tigris, major barriers to Alexander's march through Mesopotamia.

In mid-July 331 BC, Alexander sent Hephaistion ahead to build two bridges over the Euphrates. Such crossing points were well-known in antiquity, and Alexander's intelligence must have provided the necessary information. The most amazing part of such expeditions is the logistics involved. It is said that Alexander transported his ships in separate elements from Phoenicia to be reassembled on the banks of the Euphrates. Even in a straight line from the eastern Mediterranean, let's say from Antioch-on-the-Orontes (Antakya) to Thapsacus (Carchemish), we are talking about a distance of more than 200 km, implying that he must have planned this colossal move early on, maybe even while he was still at Tyre. As always, his invaluable scouts did a thorough reconnaissance job, for Alexander could not take chances to expose Hephaistion and his advanced forces to enemy attacks on the way. Even more admirable is the timing of the entire operation since the bridges had to be completed by the time Alexander and the bulk of his army arrived. 

Hephaistion's forces included carpenters and engineers who directed the hauling of the ship's parts, but also enough soldiers to do the foraging and to withstand any unexpected attack by local tribes or those people still faithful to the Persians. The crossing point was near Thapsacus, where the river was about 800 meters wide. Unfortunately, the river banks are now flooded by yet another dam further upstream, and archaeologists can't investigate this in any way. 

Meanwhile, King Darius knew that Alexander had to cross the river. He sent his most experienced general, Mazaeus, with instructions to burn the crops ahead of the enemy route. Although the harvest had already taken place, this order was carried out, and little was left to burn. Besides, this policy had no effect since Alexander took a more northerly route, which Darius had not expected.

We know that Mazaeus arrived on the eastern bank of the Euphrates and watched Hephaistion's construction progress for several days. Hephaistion stopped his operation short of the opposite riverbank to avoid seeing the end of his bridges destroyed by Mazaeus. There was little else to do for Mazaeus but to wait, but when Alexander appeared with the bulk of his army, he turned around and left to further execute his orders of scorching the earth.

By now, it must have been mid-August, and soon the two bridges were completed. This means that Hephaistion accomplished his task in a maximum of six weeks' time – speaking of engineering prowess! Of course, these were no bridges in the true sense of the word, but boats and rafts tied together with ropes and chains. A walkway of planks was placed over the boats, and the passage was created to move the nearly 50,000 troops across, as well as the thousands of horses. It seems it took the army five days to cross the Euphrates.

Alexander led his troops further east, and on the road, he learned from spies that Darius was encamped on the Tigris River. As an army is most vulnerable when crossing a river, Alexander force-marched his troops and reached the Tigris two weeks later. Here, he found no sign of Darius and nobody to stop his army. The obvious fording location has been pinned at Abu Dhahir, near the Persian Royal Road.

There was no need to build a floating bridge over the Tigris River since its waters were shallow, although fast-flowing, and men could simply wade through. Well, this is the simple version that most historians like us believe, but Diodorus tells an entirely different story. According to him, Mazaeus had decided that the river could not be crossed at the time because it ran too deep and its current was too swift. Consequently, the Persian general did not find it necessary to guard the crossing. So, when Alexander arrived at the ford, the water was above a man's breast, and the current swept away those who entered the river. At this stage, Alexander ordered all his men to lock arms with each other and "to construct a sort of bridge out of the compact union of their persons."

Yet the most vivid and perilous report is given by Curtius. He mentions that Alexander cautiously sent a few of his cavalry to test the river. The water rose up to their horses' flanks and, when they were mid-channel, to their necks. "Tigris" in Persian means "arrow," and the river owes its name to its current running as fast as an arrow. Alexander ordered his troops in formation with the infantry in the center. The men had to carry their weapons above their heads as they waded through the river with great difficulty. Like in a battle formation, the cavalry was posted on either side, where the horses upstream would break the strong current, and the cavalrymen downstream would catch those soldiers who lost footing and were swept away. Alexander directed the operation like on a battlefield, pointing his troops in this or that direction and encouraging them to move on. They all landed safely without any loss of life, only some material losses.

Once on dry land, Alexander gave his men a well-deserved rest. This was at the time of the moon eclipse that occurred on 20 September, and it has been recorded that Alexander sacrificed to the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth.

[Bottom picture is from World Archaeology]

Alexander marching beyond the Hydaspes

After the Battle of the Hydaspes, Alexander made customary offerings and sacrifices to thank the gods. The dead were given the usual burial ceremony with all the splendor and pomp this occasion required. The king organized games and competitions, and he built two new cities to crown his victory. Nicaea (Alexandria Nicaea), named after Nike, the goddess of Victory, emerged on the battlefield itself. At the same time, Bucephala (Alexandria Bucephala) was erected at the point where he started the river crossing and was meant to honor his faithful charger who died at this time (most probably not on the battlefield but instead of old age).

[By Acphalia - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0]

Once this was resolved, he instructed Craterus to supervise the fortification of the newly founded settlements and maintain his communication line. Alexander pursued his march further east and took 37 towns, the smallest of which had more than 5,000 inhabitants; according to Arrian, some were even double that size. Many well-populated villages also surrendered, and all these settlements were handed over to Porus.

Alexander then headed for the Acesines River, which was nearly 3,000 meters wide at the point where he chose to cross it. It has been speculated that he deliberately opted for the widest point to take advantage of the slower current. Once again, he used boats and floats, which had to maneuver around large jagged rocks in the fast-flowing water. The floats managed well, but several boats hit the rocks and fell apart, drowning many men in the process. Here he left Coenus to supervise the remainder of the troops that followed with the grain and other supplies taken from the just conquered territories. Porus was sent back to his realm with instructions to collect more men and elephants and join up with Alexander further down the road.

[Acesines River from Wikimapia]

Then, there was the other Porus, generally known as the bad Porus, a nephew of King Porus. He ruled over Gandaris, the lands between the Acesines River (modern Chenab) and the Hydraotes River (modern Ravi). He had sent Alexander repeated offers to surrender simply because he hated his uncle. Still, when his namesake was granted many new territories by Alexander, he fled his country, taking with him as many fighting men as he possibly could. This bad Porus fled east beyond the Hydraotes River, and Alexander followed on his tail. This meant that he had to cross this major river as well. It was swollen by the melting snows from the Himalayas and was as wide as the Acesines but not as swift. It is amazing how all these river crossings are treated as a matter of course by our historians while each and every one was a challenge in its own right.

[Bridge of boats on the Hydraotes in 1880]

Before engaging in the river crossing, Alexander, as always, made sure to safeguard his rear. This was especially important at this point since he was advancing in enemy territory. Arrian recognizes the significance of these measures, and he particularly mentions how Alexander left troops at every strategic point throughout the region west of the Hydraotes, allowing both Craterus and Coenus to move around with minimal risk during their foraging expeditions. At this point, Hephaistion was sent back with Demetrius to catch the renegade Porus and take any independent Indian tribe he might encounter on the way and hand them over to the “good” Porus.

As soon as Alexander landed on the other bank of the Hydraotes, most Indian tribes surrendered without resistance and those who did not were subdued by force. An exception was the stand made at Sangala, but that is another story (see: The siege of Sangala in modern Pakistan). 

In the aftermath of the Battle of the Hydaspes

The Battle of the Hydaspes is undisputedly the most overwhelming and decisive battle Alexander ever fought, but it was also the most ferocious. After three years of unforgiving guerilla war in Bactria and Sogdiana, the Macedonians had by now turned into killing machines. This sounds very harsh, but warfare in those days was to kill or to be killed, and five years after their last “organized” battle at Gaugamela, most men had reached the point of simple survival in combat.

[Picture from Mediterraneo Antiguo]

The Battle of the Hydaspes ended in victory for Alexander but at what cost! Historical records go by facts and figures, yet it is not surprising that our sources do not agree on any of them. Rough estimates give Porus between 20,000 and 50,000 infantry, 85 and 200 war elephants, 2,000 to 4,000 cavalry, and 300 to 1,000 chariots. His losses varied between 12,000 to 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, while 9,000 men were captured. Porus lost his two sons, all the commanders of his elephants and his cavalry, and all his generals – a very unusual number of leaders.

Alexander's troops counted approximately 40,000 infantry and between 5,000 and 7,000 cavalry, plus an unknown number of Asiatic forces. His losses (generally kept down by ancient authors) amount to 80 to 700 infantry and 200 to 280 cavalry, including 20 Companions (although current estimates reach 1,000 casualties).

Even by using the lowest figures, the battlefield, after several hours of conflict, was covered with the bodies of some 13,000 infantry + 4,000 cavalry = 17,000 men, but these numbers may have grown to 25,000 men from both sides combined. To these staggering figures, we must add an unknown number of horses (Alexander had three horses shot from under him!) and elephants. Imagine the pure stench of blood, sweat, and excrement emanating from the muddy riverbank that had been defended by Porus for a while before the attack. A grueling place to catch your breath, if you had any left! Troops on both sides must have been close to exhaustion after those long hours (some speak of eight hours) of merciless combat. In this scorching and humid climate, flies, vultures, and other animals of prey must have swarmed in, and the heavily wounded must have died soon afterward. No wonder burial procedures were set in motion as quickly as possible – a reverence to Macedonian gods and beliefs, if not a mere matter of hygiene.

The wounded raise another question in my mind: when was a soldier counted as being wounded? Was it when he had lost an arm or a leg or was so amputated that he was no longer fit for further service and was left in one of the many cities Alexander built during his campaign? I believe everybody was wounded in an intense battle like the one on the Hydaspes. Coming out of such a fierce and intensive battle with only a scratch is impossible.

How does a soldier recover his senses after such an onslaught? How does he come back to his usual self? Even today that poses a serious problem to our soldiers in combat zones. Alexander was very well aware of what his men went through and generally organized games and competitions to celebrate his victories as a counterbalance. In the case of the Hydaspes, he even issued a special commemorative medallion to all his men. At least, that is the very plausible theory developed by Frank Holt in his book Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. An exceptional reward to his faithful troops.

From the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum), Alexander moved further east, crossing the Acesines River (modern Chenab) and the Hydraotes River (modern Ravi), swollen by the melting snows from the Himalayas, till he was stopped at the Hyphasis River (modern Beas) by his own Macedonians who refused to continue. It did not matter whether they were reaching the end of the earth or what promises and incentives Alexander produced; they had had enough. In fact, I think that the Macedonian spirit died on the killing ground along the Hydaspes. It had been such an outrageous carnage for so little profit as there were no wealthy cities here to be plundered like the ones they found in Persia with Ecbatana, Pasargadae, and Persepolis. In their eyes, the next challenge and the subsequent battle became meaningless, and they simply mutinied. The continuous downpour of the monsoon rains and the fanatical resistance of the local Indian population cannot have improved the mood of Alexander’s men. They refused to march on and demanded to return home. Alexander had to concede, much to his dismay. 

It makes you wonder how much, in the end, the Battle of the Hydaspes was a victory for Alexander. His men had given their all, and after that, there was nothing more to be given except the love for their king.

[Bottom picture is from the Alexander movie by Oliver Stone]