Traces of Alexander in Pakistan?

Archaeological news from Pakistan only reaches us sparingly. As a result, the remote Swat Valley remains as hidden to us as it was in the days of Sir Aurel Stein and even Alexander! 

[The Battlefield of Alexander. Picture from Shafeeq Gigyani]

That does not mean that the northwestern corner of Pakistan was totally isolated in antiquity. Approximately 150 Buddhist heritage sites have been counted so far. The Buddhist monastery in Barikot (Bazira in antiquity) from the 1st century AD was the latest (see: Old Buddhist complex discovered in Pakistan). 

Alexander certainly crossed the Swat Valley, which was then part of India. The spectacular hoard of coins retrieved from a well at Mir Zakah is there to prove his presence (see: Alexander’s real face). 

More recent excavations high on a hill overlooking the Swat Valley revealed an ancient cemetery. Pending Carbon dating, archaeologists suggest that this was the burial site of the Dardic people who lived here between 1000 and 500 BC. As many as 32 sealed graves were discovered, shedding light upon the burial rituals of this community. It appears that the graves were used for more than one generation, adding the dead to the existing burial site. Typically, the graves contained two skeletons, one male and one female, facing each other. 

In 327 BC, Alexander marched through the Swat Valley and the village of Udegram or Odigram. In antiquity this was the large city of Ora, surrounded by defensive walls running up the slopes of the high mountain. It is roughly located between Swat and Barikot. This is the area populated by the Assacenians who sought refuge on the Aornos Rock. 

[Picture from Livius]

Amazingly enough, none of the graves contained any weapons. Archaeologists discovered, however, hairpins, some pieces of iron, beautiful pots, and a variety of ornaments executed in copper and in bronze. 

Most of the excavations in the Swat Valley are centered on Barikot, although the cemetery of Udegram holds important treasures of its own. As always, the main concern is to find enough money and the right expertise to proceed further.

Bactrian correspondence before Alexander’s arrival

Although Bactria was part of the Achaemenid Empire until the arrival of Alexander the Great, we may find it difficult to imagine that those faraway people knew how to write and even to entertain a substantial correspondence with their Lord and Master in Persia.

It is time to think about this twice as among the treasures of the Khalili Collections, there is a group of 48 documents from ancient Bactria, all written in Aramaic – one of the official languages used at the Persian Court.

[List of supplies, year 2 of Alexander - The Khalili Collections]

I had never heard of the Khalili Collections before and found that it has been put together by Nasser David Khalili, who was born in Iran and moved to study in the United States. He started collecting art in the 1970s and brought the best pieces together under the auspices of the Khalili Family Trust. It contains a great variety of precious artifacts that are divided into eight separate categories. The choices made are very specific: Islamic Art from 700 to 2000; Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage covering the same period; Japanese Art of Meiji Period from 1868 to 1912; Japanese Kimono from 1700 to 2000; Swedish Textiles from 1700 to 1900; Spanish Damascened Metalwork from 1850 to 1900; Enamels of the World from 1700 to 2000; and the section what this blog is about, Aramaic Documents from 535 BC to 324 BC.

The collection of Aramaic documents consists of letters and business accounts exchanged between Akhvamazda, the satrap of Bactria with his seat in Bactra (modern Balkh) and Bagavant, the governor. This is a unique and first-time glimpse into the correspondence and the administration of Bactria and Sogdiana. It also shows how the provincial satraps acted to implement the royal decrees in all the corners of the kingdom.

The majority of these documents were written during the reign of Darius III. The oldest ones belong to the rule of Artaxerxes III and the most recent ones to the days of Alexander. This means they were penned down in times of great turmoil in Central Asia.

In antiquity, documents were generally written on papyrus, etched in stone, or carved in clay. Of these Aramaic documents, however, thirty were written on leather, and eighteen were inscribed on wooden sticks used as tallies. Two of the leather documents are of particular interest as one casually mentions the fall of the Persian Empire with Bessus. He had killed Darius III and had claimed the crown for himself while heading for Warnu (Aornos). The other texts belong to the year 7 of King Alexander’s reign and contains a long list of supplies. The tallies inscribed on wooden sticks are also unique since this is the oldest form of bookkeeping ever found.

[Tally, year 3 of Darius - Khalili Collections]

The tallies are a quite interesting feature. They consist of short wooden sticks split in two in such a way that one obtains a flat inside surface. The tree bark on the outer surface is usually removed. The inscriptions are made in a kind of standard pattern, such as “With X from Y. In the year Z of King Darius”. Except for one undated example, all tallies were written during the reign of Darius III (336-330 BC). The way this system worked was that the sender and the receiver each kept one of the two halves of the stick. The theory goes that the notches carved on the side of the stick were cut holding the two halves together. This way, each party held an identical record of the transaction, and in case of dispute, it was easy enough to put the two halves back together to prove any discrepancy.

The leather documents apparently dealt with mundane affairs, like the delivery of food rations to officials, the instruction about building fortification around a city, or the need to send soldiers from the fort to fight a plague of locusts that was threatening the crops. They also mention which animals to use for meat and which as beasts of burden. It transpires that chickens, horses, and camels were among the favorite ones.

A full study of these Aramaic Documents can be found in a catalog published by the Khalili Family Trust in 2012 under the title Aramaic Documents from Ancient Bactria.

Indo-Greek blacksmith discovered in Pakistan

Peshawar is the first city in Pakistan that Hephaistion and Perdiccas reached with about half the Macedonians as they proceeded east from the Khyber Pass to build a bridge over the Indus River. Alexander, with the other half of his troops, marched north along the Kunar/Chitral River to take the Aornos Rock (modern Pir Sar).

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network - Credit : Dawn]

It is close to Peshawar that Pakistani archaeologists found the remains of iron workshops, dating them to the 2^nd century BC, a period known as the Indo-Greek. They base their statement on tools retrieved from the site, like iron melting pots, molds, trowels, knives, and drills that were used to make bows and arrows, daggers, and swords. The archaeologists have also unearthed remains of furnaces and grinding stones, all leading to the labeling of the site as a blacksmith.

Excavations have also revealed coins from the Indo-Greek period, but without further details. It would have been interesting, however, to know, for instance, the name of the king(s) depicted on these coins in order to narrow down the time frame.

Anyway, it is great to gather every bit of information about the Indo-Greek period since so little is available due to the fact that this empire has not been subject to systematic excavations.

Punjab, Land of Five Rivers

One close look at the map will make you realize that Punjab is an enormous alluvial plain that counts far more than the five main rivers. Situated at the foot of the Himalayas, it covers a surface of over 50,000 square kilometers. Its watershed is fed by snow and glacial meltwater from the world’s highest peaks, like the Karakorum, the Hindu Kush, and the Himalayan Mountains.

The Achaemenids had only conquered the lands west of the Indus, meaning that once Alexander crossed this mighty river, he entered uncharted territory. Modern historians do not spend much time following the king’s march further east and his countless river crossings but instead focus on battlefields, sieges, and other ruthless fights. However, each and every crossing, including the numerous tributaries, is an enormous logistical enterprise. It makes you wonder how many of these rivers, streams, and waterways the Macedonians had to cross by any means available. That alone is a gigantic task!

After taking the Aornos Rock, Alexander headed for the Indus River, where Hephaistion had worked hard to build a pontoon bridge across the river as well as a fleet partly new and partly reassembling the elements which had been carried along. The crossing of the Indus took place at Ohind, modern Hund, in north-western Pakistan (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind).

Once his troops reached the opposite bank, Alexander headed for the capital Taxila at the junction of the major trade routes from Bactria, Kashmir, and the Ganges valley. This was the realm of Omphis, the son of King Taxiles, who had visited Alexander while he was still in Bactria and died before he arrived in India. Besides sending provisions to Hephaistion during the construction works, King Omphis welcomed Alexander with 200 silver talents, 3,000 oxen, 10,000 sheep, 30 elephants, and 700 Indian cavalry and 5.000 infantry.

The next river Alexander had to tackle was the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum), where the famous battle against King Porus took place (see: The Battle of the Hydaspes and the genius of Alexander), a masterpiece and a genius enterprise that was never surpassed.

As casually mentioned by Arrian, Alexander marched on through the populous region, taking some thirty-seven towns and many villages as the natives surrendered without much protest. Their lands were graciously handed over to King Porus.

The next obstacle was the Acesines River (modern Chenab), which was so broad and swift that Ptolemy found it necessary to mention it in his biography used by Arrian. It is hard to simply imagine a three-kilometer-wide river and how much one could see of the opposite bank. The Macedonians used boats to get across, but navigation among the rocks was a true challenge, and many were broken up, and the men were swept away by the current. The floats for the baggage and horses fared much better as they were far more shallow than the boats, but the trip was nevertheless one more logistical challenge.

The Hydraotes River (modern Ravi) was another major river on Alexander’s path, and as he marched through these lands, most Indian tribes surrendered without resistance. Those who refused were, of course, taken by force. Sangala was such an exception (see: The siege of Sangala). The tribes near the city had sought and found refuge inside its strong walls. Eventually, Sangala was taken by an assault in which up to 17,000 Indians were killed while over 70,000 were taken prisoner.

[Map from Wikimedia by Apuldram - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0]

The last of the five major rivers was the Hyphasis River (modern Beas). Here, the Macedonians bluntly refused to follow Alexander any closer to the edge of the world despite his eloquent and fiery speech. This was a severe blow to the king’s ego and pride, but he issued the order to retreat after three days.

Obviously, Alexander withdrew in style, and after building twelve altars (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis) to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around, having to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again. He sailed down the Hydaspes to ultimately reach the Indus River.

Some scholars consider Alexander’s experience in Punjab as useless and a waste of time, but it is hard to believe that he would do anything without reason. He would not endanger the life of his Macedonians lightly, and he certainly would not have invested nine months of his life on a sole whim. Judging Alexander’s conduct with today’s eyes is impossible. Besides, we only have sparse historical documentation to support his decision-making.

Alexander the Great by Robin Lane Fox

For several years, I used Robin Lane Fox’s Alexander the Great (ISBN 0-141-02076-8) as a reference book but it is not until now that I really read it cover to cover. It turned out to be a most captivating experience.

Before writing down my own impressions on this book, I looked at previous comments made by other purchasers on Amazon and I am truly appalled to see it qualified as “very badly written” and “hard to understand”. This is not a novel and cannot be compared to Manfredi’s tales. On the contrary, this is a serious work in which Robin Lane Fox put his entire heart and soul, together with his thorough knowledge of one of the most enigmatic persons who ever lived.

The book is not a quick history of Alexander’s life and conquests but an in-depth study of his actions set against the background of the world he lived in and to which he had to adapt time and again as he met other civilizations and foreign tribes during his march east.

While the author follows Alexander’s steps, he often stops to analyze the whole context and to place the story against the background which the king encountered. It is so easy to judge Alexander based on our own experiences but to judge him in the frame of so many new elements and circumstances is a totally different matter.

For instance, Robin Lane Fox takes the time to explain the Macedonian military machine and armory as put into place by Philip, Alexander’s father. He does the same for Persia where he highlights the court system and the complexity of its government – most of it not unknown to Alexander but an aspect that is more often than not skipped in our western literature. He explains Persian customs and court protocol, including the meaning of being the “King of kings”. He also reminds us of the fact that Alexander had no maps and no more directions to guide him than what Herodotus had written in his Histories (something like the maps of the stars used by the first astronauts flying to the moon in the 1960s).

Although some parts of Alexander’s march east are passed by quickly, the author certainly takes the time to discuss the main events. There is, for instance, Siwah, where he not only describes the voyage and Alexander’s reception by the priests but also the significance of the god Amon and the idea behind the title “son of Amon”. Lane Fox also analyses the battles of Issus and Gaugamela including Alexander’s preparations but also looks at the tactics from Darius’ point of view. The Philotas’ Affair implicating his father, Parmenion, as well as the conspiracy of the Pages and the murder of Cleitus are discussed extensively and weighed up against the circumstances and the irrefutable evidence with which Alexander was confronted. Other battles and sieges, especially the attack of the Aornos Rock, the decisive Battle on the Hydaspes and the Mallian fight in which Alexander is deadly wounded are clearly explained with all pros and cons. And let us not forget the mutiny of Alexander’s Macedonians at the Hyphasis and at Opis – how masterly the king addressed his men in both cases.

It is clear that Robin Lane Fox has a great admiration for Alexander and it shows but he also approaches this great king without prejudice and with a great effort to merely analyzing the facts. Considering that Alexander covered almost 20,000 kilometers in eight years coping with battles and sieges, crossing the widest rivers and the highest mountains, taking the responsibility to feed and care for one hundred thousand of people if we include the baggage train, Robin Lane Fox did an extremely good job to present Alexander as a human being, king, general and faithful friend.