Preparations to sail down the Indus

The history of Alexander’s conquests in India usually relates the facts in a succession of events without paying much attention to the king’s thorough planning and preparation ahead. To sail down the Indus was an expedition by itself, which is generally ignored.

Alexander withdrew in style from the Hyphasis. After building twelve altars to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis). 

Hence, the army marched to the Hydaspes, where Alexander had founded the cities of Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala (see: The edge of the world was not reached). According to his instructions, many ships had already been assembled, but he needed to build many more before sailing south. Within two months, the entire fleet was ready. It consisted of eighty thirty-oared galleys, troop carriers, flat-bottomed boats for horse transport, circular tubs, local river boats, and enormous grain-lighters for supplies. The latter is a forerunner of the modern LASH ship or Lighter Aboard Ship that loads and unloads barges, as still used on the Indus.  Known locally as zobruks, they have a shallow draught and huge sail, perfectly suitable in strong currents. Each vessel could hold more than two hundred tons of grain to feed the army on their voyage to the Ocean.

This was a massive operation that Alexander had planned meticulously. He selected the Phoenicians, Carians, Cyprians, and Egyptians who served in his army. From them, he chose men with nautical skills for crews and rowers. Other experts were selected from among the islanders (from the Aegean), Ionians from Asia Minor, and people from the Hellespont.

Imagine this armada of up to 2,000 vessels (half the flotilla that crossed the Channel on D-Day!), moving at the shouts of the coxswain (steersman) as his rhythmic call was echoed by the high riverbanks mingled with the noise of splashing oars. 

Another factor worth considering is the number of troops needed to be moved. Back on the Hydaspes, 35,000 fresh soldiers had swollen Alexander’s total manpower to a massive 120,000! His cavalry, at this point, has been estimated to be some 15,000. However, not all the men and horses boarded the ships; neither did the impressive baggage train.

Alexander organized the army in three divisions as he would personally lead the fleet from his Royal galley with the support of his shield-bearers guards, all the archers, and the Companion cavalry – totaling 8,000 men. Hephaistion would march along the east bank of the Hydaspes while Craterus would lead the west bank with part of the infantry and the cavalry. Hephaistion took with him the bulk of the fighting troops and 200 elephants. Their instructions were to march together in advance and wait for the fleet.

The king took command after having performed extensive sacrifices to his ancestral gods and the deities of the river and Ocean. With a golden goblet, he poured a libation into the river from the prow of his ship – entirely in style with the solemn occasion. 

As soon as the trumpets signaled the departure, the voyage started in regular order. It was a hazardous enterprise, but the king had instructed how many baggage vessels were to sail abreast and the place for the boats carrying the horses and the ships of war. All vessels were to keep their distance and stay in formation, adapting their speed accordingly. Given the different sizes of boats ranging from warships and baggage vessels to horse transports, they individually required accurate steering and high alertness of their pilots. The purpose was that the ships would not fall out of each other or sail down randomly. Nearchus of Crete was appointed admiral of the fleet, with Onesicritus of Cos as his second and helmsman of the Royal flagship. 

Even after the monsoon rains had stopped, the annual flow of the Hydaspes was two times faster than that of the Nile or three times that of the Euphrates and the Tigris combined. The current would increase notably as the river narrows, particularly at the confluence with the Acesines. The roaring of the water could be heard miles ahead as the surface roughened.  

At last, the fleet made it across the narrows where the two rivers met, and the banks receded. The stream slackened, and Alexander found a protected spot on the right bank to moor his ships safely. Here, the men could take a break and make the necessary repairs before moving onward. 

Alexander was about to enter the land of the warlike Malians, who had been preparing for the confrontation.

Where did Bucephalus die?

The question of whether Alexander’s dear mount died at the Battle of the Hydaspes or at another location around that time has been discussed at length and obviously without any conclusive result.

Today, I have been wondering where Bucephalus actually died. It so happened that a friend of mine forwarded me an article about Bufliaz, a town on the foothills of the Peer Rattan Range in India that claims to be the place where Alexander’s horse died.

Bufliaz, according to the locals, is named after Bucephalus (Bunifales) to commemorate his death. The town is located 39 kilometers east of Poonch or Punch, roughly some 120 km northeast of Taxila. This sounds pretty odd because it is generally accepted that from Taxila, Alexander marched to the southeast to the banks of the Hydaspes, where his famous battle against Porus was fought.

Although Bucephalus may have died at Bufliaz, that does not exclude the possibility that a city in his honor was built on the banks of the Hydaspes near modern Mong (see: Locating Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala).

Opinions about the burial site of Alexander’s prized horse vary widely. Jona Lendering cites Jhelum, and G. Huntingford identifies a mound west of Jhelum as Alexandria Bucephala. Sir Aurel Stein tends to believe that Alexander went south from Taxila and crossed the Hydaspes near modern Behra. This town is close to Mong and could be the very site where the Battle of the Hydaspes took place. Michael Wood, although he agrees with Stein to identify Mong as ancient Alexandria Nicaea, suggests Garjak as Alexandria Bucephala. Garjak is said to have its own legend of a magical horse. Last but not least, Mansoor Behzad, a local historian, supports the idea that Bucephalus was buried in Jalalpur Sharif, 75 km northeast of Bhera.

Clearly, the possibilities are endless, and in the end, we could only establish that Bucephalus died and was buried in that general area.

The realm of King Sopeithes included modern Bhera?

After having stopped at the Hyphasis River (modern Beas) to build his Twelve Altars (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis), Alexander returned to the Hydaspes River (modern Jhelum), where he founded Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala (see: Locating Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala).

At this point, Alexander split his army into three divisions: Craterus would lead his party down the right bank of the Hydaspes, Hephaistion the left bank, and Alexander would sail down the river to its confluence with the Indus River and the Ocean beyond.

Arrian (using Ptolemy’s account) states that both generals were instructed to march at all speeds to the palace of King Sopeithes. Why these orders were issued and what happened further, he does not tell. Diodorus and Curtius, who followed the writing of Cleitarchus, place the encounter with Sopeithes as early as the Hyphasis River, just after the siege of Sangala (see: The siege of Sangala, in modern Pakistan).

Whatever the case, the encounter of Alexander with Sopeithes is very well rendered in Andrew Chugg’s book “Alexander the Great in India. A Reconstruction of Cleitarchus,” which I used hereafter.

Sopeithes had the reputation of ruling with high moral principles. For him, moral eminence and physical beauty were rated above everything else. A young child was judged by its physical condition and, as a result, was allowed to live on if it was handsome, healthy, and vigorous. Otherwise, the youngster was killed. At the time of their marriage, the young people were matched with the sole objective of producing beautiful and athletic offspring, as opposed to the usual values of dowries or wealth. It is unsurprising to learn that the citizens considered themselves superior to others.

When Alexander arrived at the town occupied by Sopeithes, he found the city gates closed and its walls and towers unmanned. He assumed that either the city was abandoned or this was a trap. Imagine his amazement when the massive doors were flung wide open, and the Indian king stepped forward to meet him, flanked by his two eldest sons. Three handsome men and a very tall king wrapped in long garments embellished with gold and purple welcomed Alexander, who must have been impressed, if not by the wealth, then certainly by the attractive and imposing personages. The king wore gilded sandals set with jewels; strings of pearls hung down from his shoulders to his wrist, and huge dazzling gemstones adorned his ears. He held a golden scepter set with beryl that he yielded to Alexander in a gesture of goodwill. Sopeithes surrendered himself and his kingdom to Alexander.

He certainly knew how to win Alexander’s heart, and the young conqueror generously reinstated Sopeithes in his kingship. With so much generosity to go around, Sopeithes organized entertainment for the entire Macedonian force that lasted several days. Alexander was showered with splendid gifts, including a party of 150 large hunting dogs of unique valiant breed.

Now the location of this unnamed city held by Sopeithes is subject to discussion. Still, based on Arrian and the analysis made by Alexander Cunningham in 1871, it is thought to be Bhera on the right bank of the Hydaspes River (today, the new city of Bhera stands on the left bank). Recent excavations have exposed several mounds (Barrian mounds) yielding artifacts from Achaemenid, Greek, and Mauryan times.

[Picture from PAK]

The modern village of Mong, built on top of Alexandria Nicea, lies only 10 kilometers away, making it plausible that Alexander crossed the Hydaspes near Bhera.

It is noteworthy that another King Sophytes in the eastern territories, minted his own coins in Greek style between 315 and 305 BC. He may have been a satrap under Seleucos I.

Locating Alexandria Nicea and Alexandria Bucephalus

For what it is worth, a monument in honor of Alexander has been erected in today’s Pakistan at the very spot where he and his army camped before his Battle of the Hydaspes. The exact location for this battle seems to have been pinpointed at Mong Village in the Punjab. According to local traditions, it was built on top of Alexandria Nicaea, a city founded by Alexander to celebrate his victory over Porus in 326 BC.

[Picture from Pakistan Geotagging]

The Greek Ambassador in Pakistan officially laid the first stone of this monument on 24 May 1997, and the building was set in a mixture of Greek and modern styles. The intention was a good one, of course, but construction has reached a standstill, and today all doors are locked. The governments of Pakistan and Greece have abandoned the project, which could have attracted many tourists. The few visitors, if any, can no longer genuinely enjoy the decaying map of Alexander’s conquests at the center of the roof. Alexander certainly deserves better!

So far, archaeological excavations have yet to confirm the exact location of Nicaea, and the search is made particularly difficult because the landscape has changed over the centuries. Sir Aurel Stein, who closely explored the area at the beginning of the 20^th century, believed that Alexander would have crossed the Hydaspes River near modern Bhera, close to the village of Mong. His conclusion is based on his analysis of the topography, the river orientation, and other natural features like the nearby salt cliffs, which all match the descriptions from antiquity. What may carry more weight is the fact that the people of Mong claim that theirs is indeed the Hellenistic city of Nicaea. More often than not, the legend may be closer to reality than we like to admit.

[Picture from Phalia, Wikipedia]

Not far from Mong, but on the other side of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) River, the city of Phalia also has a legend of its own, as its residents claim that the city is named Alexandria Bucephala after Bucephalus, Alexander’s horse, who died here around the time Alexander was fighting Porus. They even erected a statue in honor of Alexander’s faithful mount in the middle of their city. It is sad to hear that the search for Bucephalus’ grave has been given up and seems no longer to be of interest to the local population.

All in all, the above statements about Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephalus locations are far too vague to be truly conclusive. Still, at least the achievements of Alexander and the memory of his dear Bucephalus have not been forgotten – this despite his short-lived passage through Punjab 2,500 years ago.

Alexander marching beyond the Hydaspes

After the Battle of the Hydaspes, Alexander made customary offerings and sacrifices to thank the gods. The dead were given the usual burial ceremony with all the splendor and pomp this occasion required. The king organized games and competitions, and he built two new cities to crown his victory. Nicaea (Alexandria Nicaea), named after Nike, the goddess of Victory, emerged on the battlefield itself. At the same time, Bucephala (Alexandria Bucephala) was erected at the point where he started the river crossing and was meant to honor his faithful charger who died at this time (most probably not on the battlefield but instead of old age).

[By Acphalia - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0]

Once this was resolved, he instructed Craterus to supervise the fortification of the newly founded settlements and maintain his communication line. Alexander pursued his march further east and took 37 towns, the smallest of which had more than 5,000 inhabitants; according to Arrian, some were even double that size. Many well-populated villages also surrendered, and all these settlements were handed over to Porus.

Alexander then headed for the Acesines River, which was nearly 3,000 meters wide at the point where he chose to cross it. It has been speculated that he deliberately opted for the widest point to take advantage of the slower current. Once again, he used boats and floats, which had to maneuver around large jagged rocks in the fast-flowing water. The floats managed well, but several boats hit the rocks and fell apart, drowning many men in the process. Here he left Coenus to supervise the remainder of the troops that followed with the grain and other supplies taken from the just conquered territories. Porus was sent back to his realm with instructions to collect more men and elephants and join up with Alexander further down the road.

[Acesines River from Wikimapia]

Then, there was the other Porus, generally known as the bad Porus, a nephew of King Porus. He ruled over Gandaris, the lands between the Acesines River (modern Chenab) and the Hydraotes River (modern Ravi). He had sent Alexander repeated offers to surrender simply because he hated his uncle. Still, when his namesake was granted many new territories by Alexander, he fled his country, taking with him as many fighting men as he possibly could. This bad Porus fled east beyond the Hydraotes River, and Alexander followed on his tail. This meant that he had to cross this major river as well. It was swollen by the melting snows from the Himalayas and was as wide as the Acesines but not as swift. It is amazing how all these river crossings are treated as a matter of course by our historians while each and every one was a challenge in its own right.

[Bridge of boats on the Hydraotes in 1880]

Before engaging in the river crossing, Alexander, as always, made sure to safeguard his rear. This was especially important at this point since he was advancing in enemy territory. Arrian recognizes the significance of these measures, and he particularly mentions how Alexander left troops at every strategic point throughout the region west of the Hydraotes, allowing both Craterus and Coenus to move around with minimal risk during their foraging expeditions. At this point, Hephaistion was sent back with Demetrius to catch the renegade Porus and take any independent Indian tribe he might encounter on the way and hand them over to the “good” Porus.

As soon as Alexander landed on the other bank of the Hydraotes, most Indian tribes surrendered without resistance and those who did not were subdued by force. An exception was the stand made at Sangala, but that is another story (see: The siege of Sangala in modern Pakistan).