Serious excavation plans in Termessos

Back in 2018, I shared the news about the restoration of Termessos’ city walls and the clearing of the ancient road that connected the city to ancient Attaleia (modern Antalya). 

Presently, more serious excavation works are being planned in Termessos. For a start, a monumental tomb that once held several marble sarcophagi will be pieced together using the scattered and now numbered blocks lying around. Apparently, all the original stones have been listed. Unfortunately, the Hurriyet Daily News does not disclose its location. 

I found the choice the archaeologists made to start with the monumental tomb quite surprising, ignoring the more obvious remains of the Theatre, the Temple of Hadrian, the Temple of Artemis, the Bouleuterion, the Agora, and other recognizable constructions. 

Next excavations will, however, focus on the Gate of Hadrian, hopefully extending to the nearby Temple of Artemis from the 2^nd century BC. Other necropolises, the aqueducts, and cisterns may also be included in this project. 

Until now, only the exceptional remains of the Tomb of Alcetas have been identified. This general, brother of Perdiccas, fought with Alexander in India, and died here in Termessos in 319 BC during the siege of the city in the War of the Diadochi. 

The beauty and challenge of Termessos is that its remains have been left mostly untouched and protected as part of the National Park of Güllük Dagi, with its rich diversity of fauna and flora.

The Attalids, rulers of Pergamon

The Attalid Dynasty of Pergamon started with Philetairos in 282 BC, roughly fifty years after the death of Alexander. 

It remains difficult to imagine the wealth Alexander had accumulated from his conquest of Asia.  The rise of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties can hardly be compared to that of Lysimachos, who did not draw the best cards. The War of the Diadochi was a very intricate and complex bickering and conniving from which all parties did not profit equally. However, Lysimachos put his share of the booty to good use and his trusted treasury keeper, Philetairos, did the same giving Pergamon the jump start it needed.

The starting date of the Pergamon Dynasty is much later than for the empires of  Seleucos in 312 BC, and Ptolemy in 305 BC founded at the end of the War of the Diadochy. 

Philetairos was a eunuch who had served under Antigonus Monophtalmos. In 302 BC he deserted him to join Lysimachos, the king of Northwest Asia Minor. At the death of Antigonus, Lysimachos rewarded Philetairos for his loyalty by putting him in charge of his treasury (inherited from Alexander) in Pergamon. 

But when Lysimachos, upon the instigation of his wife, murdered his only son, Agathocles, Philetairos joined Seleucos I. Soon afterwards, Seleucos’ forces murdered Lysimachos leaving Philetairos to rule Pergamon until 263 BC. Seleucos granted him great autonomy, which enabled him to expand his territory. Unable to have children of his own, Philetairos had adopted his nephew, the future Eumenes I, who would succeed him in 263 BC. 

One year into his kingship, Eumenes defeated the Seleucid King Antiochus near Sardes, which enabled him to create an independent city-state of Pergamon. Eumenes did not have children either and the throne went to his nephew and cousin, Attalus, who went down into history as Attalus I Soter. Attalus ruled from 241 to 197 BC and many historians still consider him as the founder of the Attalid Dynasty, with Pergamon as its capital. 

The reign of Attalus I was all but peaceful. The Seleucids had lost power over Lysimachos' territories of Pergamon, Bithynia, Nicomedia, and Cappadocia, which gained their independence. Attalus expanded his territory but lost much of it to Seleucos II later on. However, he managed to save Pergamon from the attacks of the Galatians on his northern border and to establish friendly relations with the Romans. That’s how he got involved in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which opposed the weakening kingdom of Macedonia to Rome, as an ally of Pergamon. Attalus suffered a stroke during peace negotiations in Thebes and was brought back to Pergamon, where he died in 197 BC. 

Eumenes II took over where his father left off but mingling in the affairs of the Seleucids in Syria did not sit well with the Senate of Rome. No reason for Eumenes to be distracted from carrying out his own large expansion program in Pergamon, where he built the unique Great Altar and the massive Library, second only to that of Alexandria. The Romans resented the power and independence Eumenes displayed, which in their eyes reduced their own sphere of influence in Asia Minor. Sadly, although still in his early sixties, Eumenes’ health began to deteriorate, and he appointed his brother Attalus II as a co-ruler. One year later, in 159 BC, Eumenes died. His own son was still an infant, and consequently, Attalus II, who conveniently married his widow, became the new king. He also adopted his brother’s young son, who was to become the future Attalus III. 

Attalus II continued Eumenes’ building projects in Pergamon, this time including the Palace. He also funded the construction of a new temple to Hera Basileia between the lower Agora and the Gymnasium. 

He was familiar with the political situation he inherited. He had no real enemies and was careful to recognize the authority of Rome. Instead of going to war, Attalus II expanded his influence by spending lavish amounts of money on prestige projects. For instance, he contributed to the construction of a splendid Stoa in the Agora of Athens, at the foot of the Acropolis. This is the Stoa of Attalus II, which was restored/ reconstructed by the American School of Classical Studies in the early 1950s. Another Stoa carrying his name was built in Termessos next to the Corinthian temple.

As always, all kinds of taxes were raised to pay for these grand expenses, but Attalus equally improved trade in his kingdom, building markets and safe harbors. He certainly needed reliable access to a harbor, and Attalus attempted to subdue Side. In the wake of this failed attempt, he added part of Pamphylia to his kingdom, where he founded an entirely new port. He named it Attaleia, after himself, i.e., modern Antalya. Attalus II died at the blessed age of 81 or 82 in 138 BC. 

His successor was his nephew and adopted son, Attalus III. However, the new king was not interested in his kingship or in Pergamon. No wonder that he was rather unpopular among his citizens. When he died five years later of disease, he bequeathed Pergamon to Rome, which made it the capital of their Provincia Asia.

Although there may have been one last pretender to the throne, a supposed illegitimate son of Eumenes II, the Attalid Dynasty came to an abrupt end in 133 BC. 

In hardly 150 years, the Attalids had built one of the greatest Hellenistic centers for culture and art, mainly under the reigns of Eumenes II and Attalus II, which still intrigues us.

The end of Pergamon was all but glorious. After being hit by a severe earthquake in 262 AD, its decline was set in motion. The Muslims sacked what remained standing during their raid of 663 AD. More setbacks followed after the conquests by the Byzantine Empire and around 1300 AD by the Ottoman Empire. Slowly, the majestic site deteriorated to the point it was abandoned and forgotten until the first explorers of the 18^th and 19^th centuries rediscovered Pergamon.

First restorations of Termessos

When I wrote my blog about Termessos (see: Alexander avoided the siege of Termessos) a few years ago, I repeatedly mentioned how little of the city had been cleared and excavated – be it to my greatest pleasure.

Understandably, there comes a time when some restorations and/or reconstructions are in order, and the first choice fell on Termessos' 2,300-year-old city walls. It is a rather clear-cut project since almost 3,000 stone blocks are readily available. They have all been scanned and numbered in order to reconstruct one-third of the original one-thousand-meter-long wall. Modern cranes are now handling blocks that weigh as much as two and a half tons. It makes you wonder how the ancient Greeks managed to move and put these heavy stones into place. The restoration also includes four towers inside the wall. When this stretch of the wall is completed, it will stand at a height of six meters.

More excavation work has been initiated at Termessos, and part of the ancient road leading from the ancient city to Attaleia (modern Antalya) has been exposed (partially still hidden, however, underneath the modern asphalt road). It is nothing more than a natural route connecting inland Pisidia to the sea that has been used since prehistoric times. The most exciting part of this discovery is the fact that this may well be the road Alexander used when he besieged Termessos in 333 BC.

As mentioned in my earlier blog, there are many skeleton remains of Hellenistic and Roman buildings like the temples of Zeus and Artemis, the so-called Corinthian temple, the Heroon for an unknown hero, the Agora with its underground cisterns, the Roman Bouleuterion, the initially Greek theater that was later remodeled to meet Roman needs, the Roman Baths and Gymnasium, several fountains or Nymphaeums, and most striking of all, the impressive Tomb of Alcetas.

It is clear that Termessos has a lot to tell since it was only abandoned in the 5^th century AD after nearly one thousand years of existence.

[Pictures are from Hurriyet  Daily News, click here and here.]

A new season of excavations at Patara

It’s always exciting to imagine what new discoveries may be made during a new excavation season, especially on a site like Patara.

Last year a most exquisite bronze statue of Hermes dating from the Roman era was unearthed, actually dating from the period of Emperor Constantine. It is considered a quite unique find as never anything similar has been discovered. The statue, which looks quite modern and stylish, is now on display at the Antalya Archaeological Museum.

[picture from The Hurriyet Daily News]

Before that, in 2007, the entire theater had been cleared of sand dunes that covered most of the building, and in 1993, a precious Roman milestone had been unearthed. This monumental pillar, the Stadismus Provinciae Lyciae or Stadiasmus Patarensis, carried a dedication to Emperor Claudius in Greek and a list of roads built by the local governor, Quintus Veranius, in fact, the entire network that connected Caunos-Dalyan in Lycia to Attaleia (Antalya) in Pamphylia. The list includes the distances from one station to the next, 67 routes in all – enough to entice today’s travelers to explore the beautiful backcountry of Lycia.

This year, the team of archaeologists, scientists, and workers will be scrutinizing and digging at the Basilica, the Lima Hamam, the Palaestra, the city’s Acropolis, and the Ancient Lycian waterway.

As mentioned earlier (see: Wonderful Patara!), Patara surrendered to Alexander the Great in 333 BC. After his death, the city was occupied, in turn, by Antigonus Monophthalmus and Demetrios-Poliorcetes, finally falling into the hands of the Ptolemies. It was Ptolemy Philadelphus who, according to Strabo, embellished and enlarged Patara and renamed it Arsinoe after his wife and sister. But this change of name was not a success and Patara is the name that stuck.

Alexander the Great in Antalya’s Museum

In the days of Alexander the Great, Antalya did not exist. The city was founded nearly four hundred years later by Attalus II as a compromise in a political conflict. This happened shortly after 158 BC when said Attalus, King of Pergamon, attempted to subdue Side. His plan failed, but in exchange, he was able to add a part of Pamphylia to his kingdom. This operation was not free of danger because the Pamphylian cities loved their independence and stood officially under the protection of Rome. Attalus II did not want to ruffle Roman feathers and could not simply occupy any harbor while he desperately needed one, as otherwise, his occupation of Pamphylia would be pretty useless. He solved the problem the diplomatic way by building an entirely new port, which eventually was named after him, Attaleia, i.e., modern Antalya.

Under Emperor Hadrian, the Attaleia area became an independent province with a senator as their governor. After serving the Crusaders as a supply port and being conquered by the Seljuks, it was finally incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. The city was famous for its fine wines, but under Islamic law, the tradition of wine-making was lost and replaced by the cultivation of roses. So for the next centuries, rose oil for perfumes became the main source of income. More recently, the farming of silkworms was introduced.

There is nothing left to see from Hellenistic times in today’s Antalya, only a few traces of Roman occupation. It is said that the Atatürk Caddesi follows the outlines of the old city wall, which is only visible near the Arch of Hadrian, built in 130 AD with Corinthian columns in its façade and a worn-out Roman road running underneath. This Arch is flanked by two massive towers, cleared as recently as the 1950s. Another relic is the poor remains of the Temple of Zeus, transformed into a Basilica and later on even into a mosque – now in total ruins and in desperate need of restoration. Otherwise, antique Attaleia remains largely hidden underneath the core of “old Antalya” with its narrow streets and Ottoman houses, widely converted into pensyonlar. The Hidirlik Kulesi at the southern end of the port is thought to date from Roman times, but its role is unclear, as some speculate it was meant to be a mausoleum while others believe it was part of the citadel. In any case, this 17-meter-high tower served as a lighthouse for a while.

But the true treasure of Antalya is – in my eyes at least – the Archaeological Museum, for this is where Alexander is waiting for me.

It is a feast each time I visit this Museum, and the thought of seeing all these marvelous statues and well-organized exhibitions is very exciting, although I must have been here at least four or five times before. There always remains something new to discover, a detail I missed on previous occasions, a statue that now demands my special attention, or simply a name that I now recognize.

Among the archaeologists, for instance, there is the name of Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu, which I recognize now as the man who excavated Arykanda and most of Lycia, for that matter, and whose discoveries and analysis are publicized in his precious guide “Lycia.” The showcases filled with mostly Roman glasswork from Perge and Patara are always worth special scrutiny, as are the terracotta bowls, cups, and amphorae; the bronze objects and coins; and especially the rings and other pieces of jewelry. 

Of exceptional quality are the many statues from Perge that once enhanced the large theater, the baths, the stadium, the Nymphaeums (fountains), and the Agora. The walls of these rooms have all been painted in pinkish terracotta, making sure the statues of emperors and dignitaries stand out against them. Almost every statue has its own floodlight that switches on as soon as the visitor moves close enough. What a treat! I am particularly impressed by the Diana/Artemis and the Hermes attaching his Sandal, as I know both statues from the Louvre in Paris.  Upon closer look, they differ in slight details: the dress, the sandal, the hairdo, and the position of the feet. These may all remain unnoticed by the casual visitor. Still, I find this terribly interesting because now I can see for myself that a Roman copy of a Greek original is not always an exact copy!

In the room dedicated to the Theater of Perge, I meet up with Alexander the Great, standing tall against a green marble background, pieced together as much as possible and much larger than life-size. He dominates the room, of course. Hi there! He is in good company with an oversized Hermes, Dionysus, and Satyr. Here I also find Plancia Magna, the female demiurge of Perge (literally worker at the service of the people,  a kind of governor that is), who received a place of honor inside the Hellenistic Gate of the city around 120 AD (the base of this statue is still in situ). This shows how emancipated some Romans were in those days! Well, besides this official title, Plancia Magna was also a priestess of Artemis and of the Mother of Gods – quite a lady to reckon with!

After an open space filled with mosaics badly needing a scrub down, I arrive among the sarcophagi – a rich collection in all sorts of styles and from different provenances. I’m happy to find the one belonging to the Lyciarch Mausoleum in Olympos with a top lid on which a couple attends a banquet. It pays off to return to the museum after visiting more excavation sites, for what previously was only a name can now be mentally placed in its original context. This happened, for instance, after visiting Limyra, as I can now find the long frieze belonging to the Temple together with the special caryatid from the Heoron that was built for the Lycian King Pericles in the 4th century BC; I also get a better idea of the Cenotaph of Caius Caesar, for which a detailed reconstruction is shown here.

It is a lot of information and a lot of beauty to take in, and I’m happy to relax for a moment in the museum courtyard to enjoy a cup of tea. After that, I take a last stroll under the awning, along the objects that are not considered good enough to be taken inside. I’m amazed by the many huge amphorae that somehow remind me of Crete and have not suffered any damage at all. Unbelievable!