Excavations restarted in Ptolemais, Cyrenaica region of Libya

It is heartwarming to read that excavations in the city and harbor of Ptolemais have resumed in 2023.

The initial diggings began in 2001 and were carried out by a Polish Mission (see: Ptolemais, heritage of the Ptolemies). Work was, however, interrupted in 2010 because of the Libyan Civil War that led to the downfall of Muammar Gaddafi and years of unrest and chaos. 

[Picture from TVP World]

After its return, the Polish Archaeological Mission focused on Ptolemais’ Acropolis, sitting on a plateau some 300 meters above the city. Following a hitherto unknown road, they discovered remains of a residential area from Roman times. The layout of a residence revealed several rooms surrounding an inner courtyard, including a kitchen and a staircase leading to the upper floor. At least one of the rooms was paved with mosaics. The most remarkable feature was perhaps the presence of a basin at the center of the courtyard where rainwater was collected. From there, the water was led into two underground cisterns for storage. Also, a plaster mask was retrieved from one of the cisterns. It has been modeled on a human face, and its purpose remains unclear. It is thought to be related to some unknown Libyan tradition, as similar masks were found in a sanctuary at Slonta, in northern Libya.

Nearby, a Roman milestone with a Greek inscription was unearthed. It has been dated to the days of the Severan Dynasty Emperors, who ruled between 193 and 235 AD.  In the meantime, conservators in Poland are joining their efforts to restore the excavated mosaics and frescoes. 

The ancient port of Ptolemais lies about four kilometers to the East, where its remains sit close to the surface of the Mediterranean. What appeared to be a single shipwreck turned out to be a series of sunken ships: a 100-meter-long scatter of fragments and amphorae, probably used to transport wine, was located. The underwater explorations carried out in 2024 and 2025 exposed submerged port structures, traces of roads, discarded anchors, and sounding weights among fallen columns. 

A rare find was that of a bronze aequipondium, literally a counterweight used in Roman weighing scales, in this case in the shape of a woman’s head and filled with lead. 

Obviously, a lot of work remains to be done in this country, where excavations are a precarious enterprise.

An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya

Alexander's presence in North Africa has been limited to Egypt, which in his days included Cyrene in modern Libya (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). The king knew of the Phoenician colonies and Carthage further west, but they were not part of his plan then. 

My visit to Libya happened later, too, because the impressive ruins of Leptis Magna are far too Roman to fit into my Alexander picture. 

However, the opportunity to travel to Libya arose just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring. With hindsight, I've never been so lucky! Not only because of the timing of my visit but also because it was here at Leptis Magna that I really understood what the grandeur of Rome meant. It is an impression that the ruins of Rome itself cannot give us. 

Leptis Magna or Lepcis Magna is located on the coast of the Mediterranean, 120 km east of Tripoli. It was founded by the Carthaginians around the 7^th century BC at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda and at the end of the caravan route from the Sahara. Grain and olive oil were the primary export product, but wild animals from the hinterland were also traded and shipped. 

Carthage was involved in successive fights over the fertile lands of Sicily, facing the locals and the growing power of Rome. Carthage and Rome fought each other during the three Punic Wars, which ended with the total destruction of Carthage by the Romans in 146 BC.   

Thanks to the generosity of the local merchants, Leptis Magna already had numerous public buildings from the time of Augustus and Tiberius (first century AD).  

By the end of the second century, many Africans held high positions in Rome, and it is said that 15% of the Roman senators came from North Africa. Emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193 to 211 AD, was born in Leptis Magna, and he wanted to build a city of imperial allure, a second Rome. 

He was an avid traveler and had visited every corner of his realm, casually crushing a rebellion here and conquering more land there. He spent the winter of 202-203 here in Leptis Magna. Septimius Severus had become wealthy from the goods he had confiscated from his enemies and could afford to undertake major construction projects. The best architects and sculptors of the time were brought here to build a new forum and a huge temple dedicated to the gods protecting the city. The harbor was expanded, the water supply was improved, and a richly decorated Triumphal Arch put Leptis Magna on the map. He brought peace and prosperity; the city counted at least 60 to 80,000 inhabitants in his heyday. Septimius Severus could afford some eccentricity because the population was on his side since he had granted them the ius italicum, an exemption from local taxes.

Despite all the prestige, Leptis Magna's days were numbered. The opulence of its people did not sit well with the Roman aristocracy and created a lot of envy. As a result,  most of the African property was confiscated, and soon decline set in. 

The city was seriously damaged by the earthquake of 262 AD. Emperor Diocletian ( see: Price list established by Emperor Diocletian) tried to restore order in the 3rd century by promoting Leptis Magna to the capital of the Province of Tripolitania. Yet, another devastating earthquake ravaged the city in 306 AD. 

With the Fall of the Roman Empire, Tripolitania remained part of the Western Roman Empire, i.e., under Rome's control, while the Cyrenaica was added to the Eastern Empire, i.e., Constantinople. By that time, the harbor of Leptis Magna silted up, and the Vandals moved from Rome to settle in the area. This definitely sealed the fate of the city. 

The Byzantine Empire took over and constructed the city wall, and many large buildings were converted into churches. After the Arab invasion in the 7th/8th century, Leptis Magna was still inhabited. Sadly, the grand city never reached its heyday from the 2nd and 3rd century AD. After the 11th century, Leptis Magna was abandoned and gradually disappeared into the sand. 

However, the magic lived on, and from the 17^th century onward, columns from Leptis Magna found their way to Europe. Versailles was a destination, together with the church of St-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. The Temple of the Gods, built in Windsor Great Park in 1826, has nine columns from Leptis Magna. 

In the 1920s and 1930s, Italian archaeologists excavated the site extensively, and the most beautiful artifacts were transferred to the Museum in Tripoli. Sadly, more recent diggings are at a standstill because of the political instability in Libya.

[Continue reading Leptis Magna or what Rome must have looked like - Part I]

Another isolated Hellenistic Mausoleum

Years ago, upon leaving the site of Ptolemais in Libya, I was pleasantly surprised by the remains of a Hellenistic Mausoleum (see: Ptolemais, heritage of the Ptolemies in the Cyrenaica). It looked abandoned and neglected; nobody could tell me anything about it. 

Presently, another similar Mausoleum has been spotted in Darende, near Malatya in eastern Turkey. In antiquity, the city’s name was Melitene, a vital crossing point over the Tigris River not unlike the role played by Zeugma (see: Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River) and Dura Europos (see: Dura Europos, last stop on the Euphrates). It was also the end of the highway coming from Caesarea, modern Kayseri. The Romans fortified Melitene in the 2nd century AD to control access to the upper Tigris and southern Armenia and to defend themselves against the invading Parthians. Procopius of Caesarea, living in the 6th century AD, described Melitene’s theaters, agoras, and temples, of which nothing has been discovered until now. 

[Picture from Malatya GoTurkiye Destinations]

Scholars have established that this Mausoleum has the shape of a Greek temple built in Hellenistic style, not unlike the well-known Nereid’s Monument in Xanthos (see: Xanthos, the greatest city of Lycia), now at the British Museum in London. Based on its appearance and decorative features, the Mausoleum of Darende has been dated to the 2nd century AD. 

This building is meant to honor the deceased, although no inscription of any kind has been found to reveal his name. The monument shows four Ionian columns attached to the brick wall on each side. Between the columns and approximately four meters above ground are closed window niches, except for one on the west and one on the east side, which are open. All niches are framed between two small columns and crowned with an arch. Underneath each niche are thick wrought garlands like those often carved on Roman sarcophagi. 

The Mausoleum is about 6.5 meters high and is built in a perfect square of 6.65x6.65 meters outside. The entrance door was on the west side. The inside shape is rectangular, measuring 3.48x4.5 meters. This difference is because the interior chamber has a barrel vault supported by a thicker north and south wall. 

Presently, a restoration project has been started to support the damaged parts of the Mausoleum to preserve it in the best way possible for the future. The dirt covering the original stone floor will be removed, and the roof will also be cleared. 

Today, the Mausoleum lies hidden among the vast apricot orchards for which Malatya is famous, as the region provides 80% of Turkey’s production.

Getting around in the Nile Delta

Speaking of the Nile Delta, we obviously mean the embouchure of the river Nile where its waters mingle with those of the Mediterranean Sea. 

The problem, however, is to picture the ancient cities and harbors along that coastline. There are several elements to be taken into account. 

Historically, we best know the role played by Alexandria and Pelusium, situated on opposite sides of the Delta, roughly 250 kilometers apart. 

[From Pinterest]

Pelusium, about 30 kilometers south of modern Port Said, was looking to the East. This city was the entrance gate for conquerors coming from the east. Alexander entered Egypt through Pelusium, as did the Hittites and Persians before him. For the Egyptian pharaohs, it was their gateway to the lands on the eastern Mediterranean. The city played an essential role as a transit station for the goods coming from and going to the lands around the Red Sea (see: The fame of elusive Pelusium). 

Alexander founded Alexandria after he returned from visiting the oracle in Siwah. It arose on the most westerly end of the Delta, on the Canopic Branch of the Nile. The city was intentionally oriented towards Crete and Greece, creating a close trading route with its homeland.

The Greeks had already established thriving trade emporiums in the area. Best known is Naucratis, settled as early as the 7th century BC (see: Egypt, land of the free for ancient Greeks?) As mighty Egypt allowed them to operate a lucrative business, even granting them special privileges, Naucratis eventually became a melting pot of Greek and Egyptian art and culture where they lived in harmony with each other. In its heyday, it was home to at least 16,000 people who appear to have lived in high-rise buildings three to six floors high, not unlike the mud-brick houses we encounter today in Yemen. 

Archaeological research has found proof that the Canopic Branch of the Nile was navigable all the way down to the heart of the city. However, Herodotus gave us the impression that the freight from the ships arriving from the Mediterranean was to be transshipped into barges which would sail to reach Naucratis (see: An update about Naucratis). 

A look at the above map illustrates that vessels heading for the harbor of Naucratis had to sail an extra distance from the Mediterranean. Alexandria was obviously more accessible. 

[Mosaic from Madaba, Jordan, showing the Nile with Pelusium]

Another major port was Heracleion, which the ancient Egyptians called Thonis, founded back in the 8th century BC. Known more commonly as Thonis-Heracleion, the site has been discovered under ten meters of mud near modern Abukir Bay (see: Heracleion, an ancient Greek port in Egypt, and Underwater excavation at Heracleion still ongoing). The above map shows Thonis/Thanis on a more easterly branch of the Nile, closer to Pelusium. Recent excavations have exposed 64 ancient, beautifully preserved shipwrecks and more than 700 anchors. Heracleion reached its peak between the 6th and the 4th century BC. 

Halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, Ptolemy II Philadelphus founded Taposiris Magna around 280-270 BC. The harbor played a significant role in the trading route for the goods from the east arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from the Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). Alexandria, built on the headland between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis, claimed taxes on the goods that transited through the city until the 7th century AD at least (see: Taposiris Magna in Egypt). 

The Egyptians founded the city of Marea, as highlighted on the map, in the 7^th century BC. It actually lies on the southern shore of Lake Mareotis, modern Lake Maryut, and 45 kilometers southwest of Alexandria. Speaking of strategic locations! 

The last major city in the Nile Delta is Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, which Alexander saw in full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks (see: Buried secrets of Heliopolis)! 

This religious center was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks, like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon, consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. 

For centuries, every single Pharaoh made it to the sacred city of Heliopolis, where the gods would confer their power. When Alexander, who fully understood the importance of this ritual, followed suit, he was accepted by the Egyptians as their new Pharaoh.

Taposiris Magna in Egypt

Taposiris Magna has been in the news lately because of the extensive archaeological diggings leading to the theory that this could be the place to find the Tomb of Cleopatra VII. This last Queen of Egypt (see: Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies) leaves as big a mystery around her ultimate resting place as her distant ancestor, Alexander the Great. Anyway, this riddle has not been solved as yet.

 

Taposiris Magna lies on Egypt's north coast, about halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, some 60 km from the center of Alexandria. Nowadays, it falls within the Alexandria Governorate of Egypt. It’s interesting to know that it was on the road to Paraetonium, which Alexander took when he visited Siwah. Callisthenes tells us that Alexander stopped in Taposiris Magna, so we should assume this was an earlier settlement.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Image Credit : Koantao - CC BY-SA 3.0]

It has been recorded that the city was built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the son and successor of Ptolemy I, between 280 and 270 BC. It stood on top of a limestone ridge that separates the Mediterranean from the now-dry Lake Mareotis. In Roman times, a channel 50 meters wide was dug out simultaneously as a closed harbor system. To eliminate the silt carried by the Nile, these skilled builders ingeniously added two de-silting openings to the harbor basin. Besides some shops, cisterns, and several private and public buildings, the most significant remains are those of the Temple of Osiris and a lighthouse.

 

The name Taposiris Magna means “the great tomb of Osiris,” which clearly refers to the temple. The theory about the last resting place of Cleopatra VII matured after the discovery of a large necropolis outside the walls. It contains Greco-Roman mummies, which all face the temple. Hence, the link to the presence of royalty within the walls of the temple and, hopefully, of Cleopatra.

 

Further excavations have located the original gate to the Temple of Osiris, including several stones that once lined the entrance. This may be an indication that there was an avenue bordered with sphinxes as customary at the time the Pharaohs ruled Egypt, i.e., until the arrival of Alexander.

 

The town is surrounded by a long wall that runs further south to the shore of the lake to ensure that the caravans would pass through the city. Until the 7th century AD, Taposiris Magna played a significant role in the trading route for the goods arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). This forced the merchants to pay taxes before traveling onward to Alexandria.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Pharos of Abusir – 

Image Credit : Einsamer Schütze – CC BY-SA 3.0]

The lighthouse, or the Pharos of Abusir, is a 1:4 or 1:5 replica of the famous Pharos of Alexandria. More recent and in-depth studies have concluded that this tower was never a lighthouse but a funerary monument from Ptolemaic times inspired by the Pharos - meaning it was built after the famous lighthouse of Alexandria.

 

Pending more excavations and perhaps luck, we might find where this remarkable Queen Cleopatra is buried.

The rich history of olive oil

Most of us believe that the olive tree originated in Greece from where it spread over the entire Mediterranean. It thus may come as a surprise to learn that the oldest ones were found in ancient Israel around 5,000 BC. The olive oil was exported to Greece and Egypt until Crete and Cyprus started to produce their own, and eventually the production reached mainland Greece. The Greek and Phoenician colonists, in turn, introduced the olive tree to Italy, Iberia, and North Africa. In the wake of Alexander’s conquests and the subsequent Roman occupations, the olive tree became familiar in those lands, boosting warm summers and little rainfall. 

Olive trees obviously were most famous for their oil. The Greeks believed that the earlier they pressed the olives, the finer the quality of the oil was as they were still green. However, if they let them ripen longer till they were black, they would produce more oil. Then and now, the best quality oil came from the first pressing. 

Generally, the olives were crushed underfoot – a process that survived till far into the 20^th century. Several examples of these “presses” have survived, such as those found at Mesembria in Eastern Greece. A large slab or a terracotta lid on an earthen pot was perforated with holes, and the crusher would press the fruit by trampling the olives with his feet. The pulp was collected in a basin or jar underneath the lid and was then filtered. 

The earliest presses consisted of a large round millstone, usually pulled by a donkey. Those stones would roll over the olives poured into a circular container. The resulting pulp was then filtered through stacked baskets and pressed with a heavy rock placed on top. A good example has been found in Olynthus. Although the process may sound rather primitive, the end result was pretty satisfactory. 

It is not rare to find olive trees amongst fruit trees, and the field owners would let some sheep graze the groves to keep them free of grass and weeds. Moreover, the residue of the oil pressing process could be used as feed for the pigs. 

The demand for olive oil grew with the Roman Empire's expansion, and eventually, Constantinople became one of the leading importers.  Also, vineyards and olive farms arose in Syria and Cilicia, and they reached the peak of their capacity in the 3^rd-5^th century AD. In any case, the principal producers were located in the regions of Attica in Greece, Italy, Baetica in Spain, Cyrenaica in Libya, Venafrum in Italy, and the island of Samos. To meet the high demand for oil, the Romans developed screw presses which were more performing to crush the olives. In those days, it is believed that oil production reached such a high level that we had to wait till the 19th century to see it improved. 

Olive oil was and remains an essential ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine. However, many other implementations were known, such as fuel for the lamps or a component to make perfumes. Another application was to cleanse the body of the Greek and Roman athletes from dirt and sweat using a strigil. 

The most popular way to store and transport the oil was the common amphora, which came in all shapes and forms depending on their country of origin, the manufacturer and the merchant. 

Beyond the success story of the olive oil, the tree acquired a sacred significance when the olive branch became a sign of peace and a crown for the winners at the ancient Olympic Games. 

The olive branch was very favorite in Classical Athens, where the tree was considered a gift from Athena. The sacred tree stood on the Acropolis close to the Erechtheion and has been replaced with a new version in modern times. Pilgrims also carried olive branches on their way to the oracle at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. 

This all means that the importance of the olive tree reached far beyond oil extraction and usage.

About the preservation of mosaics

Mosaics from whatever time period or location always have a lot to tell about customs, religion, and simple daily life, and as such are very valuable testimonies of our past. 

Yet, as soon as the precious tesserae are exposed, the question arises about what to do with the mosaic and about the best way to preserve it. 

The problem was first confronted during the 18^th century when sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum were excavated. In those days, archaeology was not established as a proper science and most of the finds were carried away to be displayed in the mansions of the rich and famous. As a result, the mosaics were taken apart and the most pleasing pictures were framed in simple or elaborate frames. 

As the number of excavations steadily grew in the 19^th and 20^th centuries, archaeology matured equally and it became clear that not all mosaics – and certainly not the larger ones – could be moved for conservation inside a museum. 

Another option was to rebury the mosaics. To this purpose and probably by trial and error, different materials such as soil, gravel, or sand were used to cover the mosaics. The most obvious material was the soil, which was readily available at the excavation site. Besides, it made sense to rebury the mosaics using the same material that had contributed to their survival for many centuries. Nowadays, sand and gravel with or without plastic netting are often implemented all over antique sites. 

I often regret that I cannot actually have a look at those hidden treasures although I totally understand the logic behind this decision. However, standing at the entrance of the Royal Palace in Aegae and not being able to see the large round mosaic of the Tholos or Sanctuary is rather frustrating. In other places, like in Dion, Greece, (see: Dion, the Macedonian Sanctuary), strolling among the remains of Roman houses is not as rewarding as it could be if the many floors were exposed. 

At times, in order to help the visitor visualize the wealth of the mosaics in situ, shelters have been built to protect the precious stones under all circumstances. There are many such cases, such as Pella, Greece, or Nea Paphos in Cyprus. 

In the end, it all depends on the circumstances and the locations where the mosaics are discovered. In Zeugma, Turkey, (see: Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River) even larger floors were removed from the site because the old city was to be flooded after the construction of a dam on the Euphrates. The only way to save what could be saved was to remove the mosaics and shelter them in a newly constructed museum in Gaziantep. 

Mosaic floors that belong to extensive villas are nowadays generally kept intact. A good example is the huge Villa of Piazza Armerina in Sicily (best known for the pictures of the bikini-girls) which has been largely roofed. On other occasions, the entire basement of the villa is cleared and made accessible underground as is the case in Ravenna, Italy. This site, called Tapeti di Pietra (carpets of stone) had been discovered during the construction of a parking lot underneath a modern building. Another similar situation occurred in Antakya, Turkey (see: Antakya’s rich collection of mosaics) where the heavily undulating mosaic floor will be incorporated into the hotel that is under construction. 

It appears that there are many options to safeguard a mosaic floor, all depending on the location and the circumstances in which they are found. Overall, the best and safest conservation choice is the reburial technique. However, this has to be done very carefully and the site must be kept under surveillance. It is sad to find mosaics disintegrating because the layer of sand and gravel is not thick enough and curious or malicious visitors scratch the protection away to expose the mosaics underneath. Many archaeological sites in the Middle East and North Africa are being damaged beyond repair like in Ptolemais, Libya (see: Ptolemais, heritage of the Ptolemies in the Cyrenaica).

Lawlessness is damaging ancient Cyrene

It seems that nowadays, only a handful of tourists wander around the imposing ruins of Cyrene in eastern Libya. I honestly envy them, having the site all to themselves. However, when I visited this landmark before the outbreak of the Arab Spring, I was not bothered by many visitors either (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). 

However, these were still the days of Muammar Gadaffi, and the country knew at least some structure and form of control. Soon after the Revolution, everybody made his own laws, and even today, there is no firm government in place to reinforce law and order. This was and is the case all over Libya, with its rich Roman heritage in western Tripolitania with cities like Sabratha, Oea (Tripoli), and Leptis Magna, and in eastern Cyrenaica, where the main town is Cyrene. 

Basically, Libya still has laws in place to protect its ancient heritage, but in today’s political situation, they have little or no effect. Besides, the fines and prison sentences are minimal and don’t refrain anyone from trying. 

The heart of ancient Cyrene, excavated mainly by the Italians under Mussolini, is fenced off to mark the protected area. However, as always, the old town spreads further outside these borders where it is complicated, even under the best of circumstances, to protect the ruins. 

The residents of nearby modern Shahat are taking matters into their own hands and have decided to take possession of these border lands that the state holds in trust. Some areas are being invaded by treasure and fortune-seekers who intend to sell the looted artifacts abroad. They don’t hesitate to use bulldozers to dig up whatever they can and divide the booty among them. Other parcels are simply seized and sold to the property developers who build their housing blocks right on top of these priceless remains. It is estimated that at least 30% of the ancient city has been built upon! 

Nobody has any idea of the extent of damage and of the number of artifacts that disappeared forever. In this unstable war and peace situation, it is understandable that people have more important worries than protecting their heritage. They feel this is their land and are free to exploit it in any way they wish. As an example, Shahat with its 50,000 inhabitants, experiences a pressing need for housing, which takes priority over everything else. 

Besides the unofficial digs and to make the situation worse, there is a severe disfiguration of the ancient buildings with graffiti. The problem is the same everywhere (see: Still hope, though scant, for Libya’s cultural heritage). Museums can somehow protect their treasures, but not the many archaeological sites still holding so many hidden gems.

The Tripolitania

Even today, Libya is generally torn between the area around Tripoli in the west and Benghazi in the east. That division goes back far into antiquity when the Cyrenaica, with the capital Cyrene, belonged to Egypt, its eastern neighbor. This was the situation when Alexander received the delegation from Cyrene while he was on his way to Siwah. 

After the king died in 323 BC, Cyrene and Cyrenaica, fell to the Ptolemies. It was only in 96 BC that the Romans incorporated it into the Province of Crete and Cyrene. The history of Cyrene and Cyrenaica was treated in my earlier blog, Picking up Alexander’s traces in Cyrene. 

The situation in Tripolitania was entirely different. In the 10th century BC, Sabratha was founded by the Phoenicians, together with Oea (Tripoli) and Leptis Magna. It soon became a Punic settlement. The power of Rome was on the rise and clashed with these people. Several wars known as the Punic Wars were fought in 264-241 BC, 218-202 BC, and 149-146 BC. In 146 BC, Tripolitania became a Roman province with Leptis Magna as its new capital and the major port.

In the first century BC, Sabratha seems to have followed Greek culture. A severe earthquake created the ideal opportunity to rebuild the city following the Hippodamian plan. Roman architects had their chance after the earthquakes of 65 and 70 AD. They rebuilt the city on a grand scale, destroying much of the Punic and even Greek remains. By the late 2nd century AD, the spectacular theater was constructed, offering seating to 5,000 spectators, and many monuments were lavishly decorated with statues and fine marble. Unique are the many private houses that arose along the Mediterranean coastline.

Leptis Magna was the second Roman port in Africa, and although its wealth is beyond imagination, only a few private villas have been found. The Phoenicians founded the city that became famous under Emperor Septimius Severus, his hometown. By 193 AD, Leptis Magna was the third-largest city in Africa after Carthage and Alexandria. In those days, many Africans occupied high positions in Rome. It is said that 15% of the Roman senators came from this region and several emperors, among which Septimius Severus was best known. He conquered the new province of Numidia for Rome. It included western Tunisia and eastern Algeria. The Regio Tripolitania was created during his reign to underscore the power of cities like Sabratha, Tripoli, and Leptis Magna. Walking among the remains of this grand city, I realize for the first time what Rome must have looked like in its heyday. I never had that feeling in Rome, but I certainly did walking around in Leptis Magna.

Tripoli, today’s capital of Libya, has few remains of what once was Oea, founded in the 7th century BC by Greeks from Thera (Santorini). The city was shortly ruled by Cyrenaica but was then taken over by Carthage. Like its neighbors, Oea was conquered by the Romans. It is tough to find any remains of Oea in Tripoli because the city has been continuously inhabited. This means that the modern city stands on top of Oea. The contemporary city has been built over the rare remaining old monuments and walls. If not, the stones have been quarried and reused as construction material elsewhere.

At least one monument testifies to Roman occupation: the Arch of Marcus Aurelius from the 2nd century AD. It stood at the very center of the city, but today it looks lost in a narrow park-like square. 

The death blow of Tripolitania came in the 4th century when a series of earthquakes occurred successively in 306, 310, and 365 AD. Some of the heavily damaged temples and official buildings were patched up to no avail. Slowly the proud cities of Tripolitania sank into oblivion and were resuscitated only in the 1930s. The Italians wanted to build a second Roman Empire and engaged in excavations all along the North African coastline. Those are the remains we can see today.