The case of Alexander of Lyncestis

The name Alexander is already very popular in the days of Alexander the Great and may lead to confusion. 

For a start, there was King Alexander of Epirus, Olympias’ brother and Alexander’s uncle. I usually refer to him as Alexandros to make the difference. He is the one who married Alexander’s sister Cleopatra in 336 BC, the day King Philip of Macedonia was assassinated. 

[Expansion of Macedonia from Wikipedia]

Then there is Alexander of Lyncestis, in Upper Macedonia, son of Aeropus and son-in-law of the general and later regent Antipater. He had two brothers, Heromenes and Arrhabaeus, who were soon accused of plotting the murder of Philip II and put to death. Brother Alexander is said to have been the first to proclaim Alexander of Macedonia as king and thus avoided punishment, for now at least. 

In Alexander’s campaign, the Lyncestian was soon appointed to command the Thracian detachment and later the Thessalian cavalry. However, two years later, Parmenion, who was spending the winter near Gordion, caught a messenger carrying a secret letter from the Persian King Darius for Alexander of Lyncestis. It revealed that Darius promised to pay him a thousand talents of gold to kill Alexander and would proclaim him King of Macedonia instead! Parmenion sent the messenger with a trusted escort to Alexander, where the man repeated the same story. 

This was an extremely serious matter that Alexander put before his assembled Companions in order to make the appropriate decision. It was agreed to send a trusted man, a brother of Craterus, to Parmenion. He would travel incognito, dressed as a local and accompanied by guides from Perge, and deliver his message verbally, as it was thought better not to write down anything on a matter of this importance. Alexander’s envoy reached Parmenion without being detected and reported the instructions he was carrying. Alexander of Lyncestis was arrested and put in chains. He was tried for plotting against his king and put in prison. Being the son-in-law of Antipater, acting as the king’s Regent in Macedonia, was an important factor in his favor. 

The Lyncestian was dragged around for about three years, when in 330 BC, in the wake of Philotas’ trial and execution for a similar plot, the Macedonians demanded that he should be tried and punished accordingly as well. When he was brought in from confinement to plead his case, he was faltering and nervous, and found no words to reply and defend himself. This was perceived as a guilty conscience, and the bystanders ran him through with their spears. 

It should be noted that Queen Eurydice I, Alexander’s paternal grandmother, was born in Lyncestis. She married King Amynthas III of Macedonia, the father of Philip II, in 390 BC to consolidate the relations between the two countries.

An introduction to the Scythians

The Scythians are mentioned in different contexts throughout my blog, but they have never been discussed as a people. 

[Picture from World History Encyclopedia.  A map illustrating the expansion of the warrior nomad Scythians between the 7th and 3rd century BC across Asia and Europe. (Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-SA)]

We have to go back to Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who mentions the Scythians for the first time. The author concentrates on Ukraine, although his description might well extend to the tribes in Central Asia. When talking about the Scythians, we refer to many different tribes roaming the steppes north of the “civilized” world. Their habitat stretched roughly from the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea (north of Persia) to Central Asia and the desert of Mongolia. At this far easterly end, the Chinese protected themselves from Scythian invasions by building their famous Great Wall. 

Generally living in small bands, they attacked the cities and towns situated south of their extensive east-west frontier. After a more or less sudden devastating incursion, they would withdraw with their booty into their vast nomadic Eurasian steppe lands. Over the years, some tribes settled as farmers, but they were not interested in founding cities of their own. 

In Central Asia and Persia, the Scythians were called Sacae as both tribes shared the same Indo-European language and lifestyle. These Sacae are called Skudat, which the Persians understood as Sakâ. The Greeks, in turn, used the name Skythes or Skythai. No wonder the Scythians show up so often in history under a different disguise. 

The Persians suffered repeated attacks from the Scythians, who, even shortly, dominated the Medes in the 7th century BC. They are also known to have played a significant role in the Sack of Nineveh in 612 BC. 

As a result of Miletus’ colonization, the Kingdom of the Bosporus emerged (see: The Kingdom of the Bosporus). It reached its peak between the 6th and the 3rd century BC. During that period, the new settlers maintained strong cultural and trade relations with the Scythians. Over the centuries, the kingdom with its capital of Panticapaeum became a melting pot of civilizations as the Greeks mingled with neighboring Pontic Scythians. 

An earlier blog, A cast helmet from Central Asia, discussed a helmet found near Maracanda, in the tomb of a Sacae leader. The technique of cast helmets was customary in China, which proves that these nomadic Scythians lived far to the east. This particular helmet dated from the 6th century BC and became obsolete afterward. 

The Massagetai tribe living near the Aral Sea was also Scythian. In 529 BC, Cyrus the Great attacked this tribe, ruled by Queen Tomyris. That happened after Cyrus’ negotiation to marry her failed. She bluntly refused to submit to him. As a result, the king attacked her and her tribe, and she died on the battlefield. 

The Scythians also successfully withstood Darius the Great’s attack at the beginning of the 5th century BC. Later that century, the Pontic Scythians took possession of Thrace. 

In the 5th century BC, the Odrysian Kingdom was founded – merely a union of more than forty tribes that turned Thracia into a powerful state. The Odrysians and the Scythians had reached peaceful relations through their inter-dynastic marriages, which led to establishing the border of their lands at the Danube River. Both peoples mingled and were generally recognized as Scythians. Their agreement, however, was not meant to last as, in the end, southern and central Thrace were divided among the Odrysian kings. Eventually, Philip II conquered their land in 340 BC. The Getae ruled the northeast section. 

Alexander attacked these Getae after his pursuit of the Triballians to the banks of the Danube River in 335 BC. The Triballians had sought refuge on an island. Instead of attacking them in that awkward position, Alexander decided to isolate them and go after the Getae on the other bank of the Danube. He managed to ferry 4,000 infantrymen and 1,500 cavalry across the wide river by night. No wonder the Getae were in shock when they woke up with this army on their land and fled to the hinterland (see: Crossing the Danube River). 

A noteworthy Odrysian Thracian is Sitalces. His true origins remain relatively obscure, but apparently, he was a prince, maybe even the son of King Cersobleptes of the Odrysian Thracians. He joined Alexander’s army and proved to be a competent commander who led the Thracian javelin men on more than one occasion. The Thracians appear again at the Battle of Gaugamela. They were placed with the main body of the Macedonian troops, under the command of Sitalces once again (see: Sitalces, commander of the Thracians). Sitalces was also one of the three generals who, on Alexander’s orders, executed Parmenion in Ecbatana (see: The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution). 

Back in Central Asia, we should mention the story of a Scythian chief named Karthasis, who offered one of his daughters – most probably one of those warlike Scythian young women - in marriage to Alexander. The King declined, but the story may well have triggered the tale of the Amazons. 

In 329 BC, Alexander marched north to Cyropolis, a city founded by Cyrus the Great. But Cyropolis was situated about 10 km away from the Jaxartes River. Alexander felt that it didn’t serve his purpose, i.e., to protect the country against the nomads inhabiting the lands beyond the majestic river. He decided to build a city of his own, Alexandria-Eschate or Alexandria-the-Furthermost (Ultima), right on the banks of the Jaxartes – the location of today’s Khodjend in Tajikistan. Shortly after starting his project, a general revolt broke out, and the entire area exploded into armed resistance, making it clear that the Macedonians were not welcome. The Scythians on the opposite shore of the Jaxartes also grew furious. Consequently, Alexander set the crossing of the river in motion. He conceived a flotilla of large rafts made of stuffed leather tent covers, rigged together and covered with a sturdy platform. These rafts could carry a heavy contingent of men and even horses. Besides, Alexander equipped them with long-range catapults, a kind of machine the Scythians would discover for the first time.

When the Scythians recovered from their first shock and surprise, they played their favorite maneuver by riding and attacking in circles. Alexander threw in a mixed force of infantry and cavalry and successfully broke the circle, sending the Scythians to retreat after being hunted down by Alexander for several miles into the desert (see: Alexandria-Eschate and Cyropolis). 

The above gives insight into the Scythians' link between Greece, Persia, India, and China. It may somehow have laid the foundation of the Silk Road as a vast trade network. 

Although the Scythians have no written records, they left us substantial archaeological evidence of their high skills in metalwork. Monumental burial mounts across the Eurasian steppe reveal high-quality jewelry, weapons, vessels, horse harnesses, belts, and other decorative items, mostly made of gold. 

Inevitably, some of these Scythian tribes, such as the Pontic Scythians, settled as farmers, while others kept roaming the vast steppes from Mongolia to the Black Sea area. In the early Middle Ages, the most westerly tribes blended in and mixed with the early Slavs.

Writing a letter home and the logistics implied

It sounds like the most obvious thing to do for a soldier, writing a letter home. But I find it quite remarkable that the Macedonian troops travelling with Alexander wrote letters to their family in their homeland because it implies that the average soldier could actually read and write! Maybe they didn’t all carry pen and ink in their backpack but papyrus or some kind of parchment – even though that seems to have been implemented only in the days of Cleopatra – was easy to take along.

The letters home are rarely mentioned in our literature but they become subject to close scrutiny when the Macedonians are divided after the plot and the execution of Philotas in 330 BC. Many were distressed by the murder of Parmenion, Philotas’ father. The army no longer stood unanimously behind the king’s decisions and policies. Alexander, however, could not let this group of discontent troops sow havoc in his ranks. He had to make sure to find the traitors and those who dared to criticize him. This was a serious matter and he decided to open and censor the army’s letters home. This was the only way for Alexander to locate the unruly elements. He removed the culprits from their own units and transferred them to a separate body, the ataktoi, a disciplinary unit that was specially created for the occasion. These men were sent on particularly dangerous or suicidal missions where they could and would redeem themselves – if they were not killed that is.

The courier service between the troops on the march and their homeland must have involved an incessant flow of riders and seafarers – not only for the common soldiers but also for official business that must have followed another channel.

The most frequent mail exchanges were undoubtedly Alexander’s official correspondences with his Regent, Antipater, and with foreign ambassadors and representatives. It was the task of his secretaries Eumenes of Cardia, who occupied that position previously under his father, and of Callisthenes of Olynthus, the nephew of Aristotle. There must have been an entire “office” of scribes of all kinds, including people who were familiar with the does of don’ts at foreign courts and a number of qualified translators and copyists to keep track of the documents.

Alexander certainly wrote his private letters to his mother Olympias personally for I doubt he would have entrusted these to anyone else. He may have employed a number of private and trustworthy couriers because the content of those documents was highly sensitive.

We are also aware of Hephaistion’s correspondence with Aristotle but it seems evident that he maintained a vivid correspondence with many scholars and high ranking officials spread all over the conquered territories and even beyond.

Also, the incoming mail had to be checked, sorted and distributed. The royal mail had priority and was opened, checked and sorted by the scribes in Alexander’s tent supervised, I assume by Eumenes who had to decide what had to be prioritized and what not.

The matter of correspondence, on whatever level, implies a huge logistic machinery of its own. It has been suggested that initially Parmenion was responsible for the army’s logistics, which may have included the mail services. However, once he was assigned as keeper of the immense Persian treasury in Ecbatana, we don’t know who replaced him to become the trusted brain behind those operations.

Another Alexander fort?

It is entirely by accident that I came across the mention of The Citadel of Alexander the Great in Farah, Afghanistan. I must confess that I never looked for it as I didn’t expect to find much traces of the Macedonian king in that country.

Farah is the modern name for ancient Phrada, Alexandria in Drangiana or Alexandria Prophthasia. Besides being a fortress, the site made headlines because of the famous conspiracy of Philotas that occurred in 330 BC (see: The Philotas Affair). After the treachery of Philotas was brought to a good end – at least for Alexander – Alexandria in Drangiana was renamed Alexandria Prophthasia, appropriately meaning “Anticipation” since Alexander anticipated widespread consequences and acted before the others could attack him.

[Alexander's Citadel, from Michael Yon On-Line]

The events as told by Curtius unfolded in and around Alexander’s tent. That is probably the reason why I was not looking for a nearby fortress of any kind. On the other hand, it has not been established with certitude that Alexandria Prophthasia is to be found on the site of Farah either.

Under these circumstances, it is not unreal to assume that local legend has its own truth and that the Citadel of Farah was once occupied by Alexander and his Macedonians. Reaching a diameter of approximately one square kilometer, its size is impressive enough. Even today, the earthen walls, which initially were about 15 meters high, crown the hill next to Farah’s bazaar.

Farah as all of Afghanistan, unfortunately, lacks in-depth archaeological research and excavations. Alexander’s occupation may, after all, be resting on local folklore. Another theory is that the citadel was built by the Zoroastrians in the days of Darius I (the Great), i.e., in the 6^th century BC. This would mean that it already existed when Alexander arrived.

After the king’s death, the Seleucids ruled the region until in the 2^nd century BC the Graeco-Bactrians emerged followed by the Parthians and eventually, the Sacae.

It is not surprising that because of the repeated later additions and transformations, the origin of this fort remains enigmatic. The Citadel is in deplorable condition, and recent occupations by the Soviet army and the Mujahedeen fighters have led to serious disrepair of the site.

All is not lost, it seems since funds are being requested officially with the Ministry of Information and Culture to restore the historic site. 

It will take much effort and even more time to disclose the story behind these walls, especially since so much of Afghanistan is in dear need of excavation and protection (see: Saving Afghanistan’s Incredible Heritage).

Sitalces, commander of the Thracians

Apart from one single event told by Curtius, Arrian is the only ancient author to mention Sitalces by name. His origins remain relatively obscure, but he was apparently a prince, maybe even the son of King Cersobleptes of the Odrysian Thracians.

It was common practice in antiquity to take the sons of the kings as hostages to make sure that their fathers remained loyal to them at home. Alexander’s father had been such a hostage for several years in Thebes (see: Macedonia forged by Philip - Philip’s boyhood), and it is not unlikely that Sitalces shared the same fate.

Whatever the reason for his presence in Alexander’s army, Sitalces proved to be a competent commander who led the Thracian javelin men on more than one occasion.

The first time Arrian mentions the Thracians is at the banks of the Granicus, where they supported the advanced position on the left wing under Agathon, the Macedonian commander of the Thracian cavalry. This same cavalry was part of Alexander’s forces that marched to Miletus. During the siege of Miletus (see: Miletus, Alexander’s first siege in Asia), Alexander had made sure of the island of Lade by anchoring his fleet in its harbor and putting ashore “his Thracian contingent” (we don’t know how many), and some 4,000 mercenaries.

When in 331 BC, Alexander marched from Phaselis to join Parmenion in Gordion, he had to cross the challenging Climax Mountains (see: Alexander’s army crossing Mount Climax). He planned to send the bulk of his troops over difficult tracks across these mountains. He ordered his Thracian engineers ahead to cut out a path and steps in the rocks to make their march easier and faster. Traces of those steps and cuttings are still visible in some remote places today. Alexander took a shortcut with his smaller party, closely skirting the coastline.

The name of Sitalces is not mentioned so far, but appears for the first time during the assault of Sagalassos. For this operation, the general command of Alexander’s left wing was assigned to Amyntas, whose troops were screened by the Thracian javelin battalions led by Sitalces.

Sitalces also accompanied Parmenion in 333 BC, when he was sent ahead to occupy the Syrian Gates in preparation for the confrontation with Darius at the Pinarus River. Again, during the ensuing Battle of Issus, we find the Thracians under the command of Sitalces in the forefront of the Macedonian infantry on the left wing, together with Cretan archers.

It may be noteworthy that when Antipater sent reinforcement to Alexander in Memphis, these included, besides 400 Greek mercenaries led by Menidas, a force of 500 Thracian cavalry commanded by a certain Asclepiodorus. It may not be a large contingency, but good cavalrymen were always highly appreciated.

The Thracians appear again at the Battle of Gaugamela. They were placed on the left at an angle with the main body of the Macedonian troops, under the command of Sitalces once again. They were, in turn, supported by allied cavalry under Coeranus and the Odrysian cavalry under Agathon. Arrian explicitly mentions that the Thracian infantry stood guard over the pack animals.

When, in 330 BC, Parmenion was stationed in Ecbatana to guard the enormous treasury Alexander had collected from Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, the general had a force of 6,000 men at his disposal. After the plot and execution of Philotas later that year (see: The Philotas Affair – Part I – How the plot was revealed), the king dispatched Polydamas, one of his Companions, with a letter addressed to three generals that resided there under Parmenion’s command with instructions to kill the old general (see: The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution). The three men to carry out Alexander’s orders were Cleander of Macedonia (brother of Coenus), Menidas, and Sitalces.

Just before reaching the Acesines River in India, Alexander learned that the Greek governor of Assacenia had been assassinated, and the people had revolted. At this time, Phrataphernes, satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania, rejoined Alexander with those Thracians left under his command. The Thracians were multipurpose troops that may have started as javelin-throwers and cavalry soldiers, but as the campaign went on, they were used successfully for all kinds of jobs.

We didn’t hear from Sitalces again until Alexander returned from India and joined Craterus in Carmania. Among the troops were the officers who had been with Parmenion in Ecbatana: Cleander, Heracon, Agathon, and Sitalces, with most of the men under their command. Cleander and Sitalces were accused of crimes like plundering temples, disturbing tombs, and other violent and tyrannical attacks against the natives. As these facts were reported to Alexander, he gave orders to execute all four generals (although Heracon may have been killed afterward when he arrived in Susa). Curtius mentions that these marshals were put in chains (to be killed, no doubt), and 600 of their followers were executed.

Well, Sitalces did not die the glorious death one would expect from the onset. Still, ten years of war and plundering, reaping wealth unheard of, had definitely left their marks on everyone in the army, including Alexander. We don’t hear much about the common soldiers, except maybe their debaucheries in Babylon and the foreign women they took on the road, but foremost men like Harpalos, Philotas, and probably Parmenion paid for their greed with their lives. So did Cleander, Heracon, Agathon, and Sitalces in this case.

All things considered, it is, however, surprising how loyal and how dedicated the gross of Alexander’s inner circle, his Companions and his generals, remained to him throughout the years.

Harpalos’ mismanagement or is it Alexander’s?

It is common knowledge that Alexander valued friendship above all. His first core group of friends took shape at an early age when they joined him in Mieza for Aristotle’s tutoring and these friendships lasted till the end of his life. Harpalos was one of them, and he was among those who were exiled by Philip for siding with and supporting his son in the Pixodarus affair. Once he became king, Alexander called them back and promoted them to high positions in his army. Harpalos, however, being physically unfit for military duty, was assigned as Treasurer.

In Alexander’s eyes, his friends could do no wrong, and a few such examples have transpired. There is Philotas’ first conspiracy in Egypt that was reported by his mistress Antigone and confirmed by Coenus, who was married to Philotas’ sister Antigone – strong evidence that Alexander refused to believe. That was in 332 BC, and Philotas survived another two years before being put to death in Alexandria in Drangiana for failing to report or for participating in another conspiracy to take Alexander’s life. It is pretty significant that the king left most of the judging and sentencing to his Companions and the Macedonian army.

The case of Harpalos is another matter and by far the most enigmatic example. Just before Alexander engaged in the Battle of Issus, and for some obscure reason, Harpalos fled to Megarid in Greece. He may have cowardly chickened out, not believing in his king’s victory against Darius, and seeking a safe haven elsewhere. Or, he may have been under the bad influence of a certain Tauriscus, who escaped at the same time to find refuge in Italy. In any case, this indicates that both men had serious reasons to fear Alexander’s wrath for whatever wrongdoing or embezzlement they had committed.

Two years later, however, Alexander inexplicably called Harpalos back and reinstated him with the resounding title of Guardian of the Babylonia Treasury and the Revenues Accruing Thereto and put him in charge of the enormous treasures he had so far collected in Asia Minor and in Egypt. Alexander reassured Harpalos that he would not be punished for whatever happened before. Why he made this decision or what triggered it is everyone’s guess. One would think he had enough capable and responsible officers in his army, he could trust with this highly sensitive position besides Harpalos. Maybe the fact that the aunt of his friend, Phila, was one of his father’s wives played a role, since this relationship also made him a family member. In any case, there is no rational explanation for Alexander’s decision. The fact remains that Harpalos occupied the most powerful position compared to Alexander’s other friends and this was in spite of the fact that he had betrayed his king’s trust.

After seizing the intact treasuries of Babylon, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, Alexander put the largest wealth ever accumulated in history into Harpalos' hands, installing him in Ecbatana with 6,000 troops to guard the booty.

As Alexander headed further east into the heart of Central Asia, his treasurer moved to Babylon where he lavishly spent the amounts of money for his own pleasures with prostitutes and hetaerae, setting up a court only equaled by Nero a few centuries later. He picked a courtesan from Athens named Pythionice, who was covered with gifts worthy of a queen. This extravagant love affair did not last, for she soon died and was interred in a stunning memorial for the baffling price of 200 talents paid for by the treasury. Yet Harpalos’ megalomania did not stop there since he also built a temple in Babylon where she would be worshiped as Aphrodite Pythionic and another expensive monument on the Sacred Road in Athens. This last epitaph was witnessed by our traveling reporter Pausanias several centuries later, who considered it unworthy of the 30 talents it had cost.

After this extravaganza, Harpalos sent for another Athenian hetaera, Glycera. Like her predecessor, she lived like a queen and even received divine honors. Her beauty was trumpeted forth in Syria with a statue dedicated to her beauty and at Tarsus, where a luxurious palace was constructed for her pleasure. Harpalos showed no respect for Alexander and certainly did not reciprocate his friendship. Like on the eve of the Battle of Issus, he probably expected his king to be the underdog in one of the many fights, battles, skirmishes, and confrontations with the barbarians in the east. Alexander would evidently be killed and never return to the court Harpalos had cut out for himself at Babylon.

But Alexander did return from India and soon discovered how many satraps had taken advantage of their privileged position to fill their own pockets. His response was immediate, and he promptly executed the culprits there and then. Obviously, Harpalos had every reason to expect his king’s anger, and he feared for his life. He packed up as much money as he could possibly carry, and with 5,000 talents [that is the equivalent of three billion dollars] and 6,000 mercenaries, he set sail for Athens.

It is known that Alexander sent three different embassies to demand Harpalos’ extradition, but they all returned empty-handed. Thanks to lavish bribes paid by Harpalos to the Athenian politicians – led by the ever-sour Demosthenes - who still resented Alexander’s successes and the Macedonian power, he was able to escape. Eventually, Harpalos was captured in Crete and assassinated by his own men, one year before the king’s own death.

How is it possible that Alexander, the conqueror of the world, was unable to catch and judge Harpalos wherever he was? Many men were killed for stealing less than Harpalos’ extravagant expenditure and the 5,000 talents (equaling 142 tons of silver and 14 tons of gold) he took with him to Athens. Alexander must have been aware of this corruptible behavior but turned a blind eye to it? Neither stupidity nor ignorance can be the reason for Alexander’s action – or non-action - and the most obvious explanation would be mismanagement.

This is an extremely serious accusation, and it is hard to believe that a bright mind like Alexander’s could be capable of such a misjudgment and such a miscalculation. As strange as it may be, it seems that Alexander was not truly interested in money but rather in conquering new territories and expanding his power, since there are other examples of embezzlement that were left unpunished or which he somehow accepted.

There is the case of Cleomenes, whom Alexander had appointed in Egypt to collect taxes and manage his finances, including the building of Alexandria. This man had set up a shady trade business selling wheat to Athens, extorted money from the priests on a broad scale, and cheated the soldiers in his service. An official complaint was filed and sent to Alexander, and guess what? The king not only pardoned Cleomenes for said crimes, ordering him to build a temple in honor of Hephaistion, but he also forgave him all future violations! Unbelievable! Ptolemy was much smarter, and as soon as he became king of Egypt, he executed Cleomenes. Chop-chop!

In between Harpalos’ two appointments as treasurer, there were the cases of Coeranus and Philoxenus, who got away with exorbitant amounts of money. The final replacement for Harpalos, Antimenes of Rhodes, made a reputation for oppression by imposing outrageous taxes, setting up a swindle business with slave owners and travelers on the royal roads. All these financial officers somehow escaped disciplinary actions, or at least none are being documented besides the cases of Harpalos and Cleomenes.

Maybe it is true that Alexander was not much interested in money, at least not beyond the strict necessity to finance his next campaign or war, which would automatically generate a new inflow of money. He loved to give and he gave in style, not only to his close friends but also to new allies (e.g. Porus), to his soldiers as a prize for merit and bravery in combat, and to his veterans sent back to Macedonia, including travel expenses, bonuses, and stipends for the wives they left behind in Asia. He entirely financed the huge Susa wedding, i.e., his own but also that of his one hundred Companions, and he offered wedding gifts for his 10,000 Macedonians who had taken Asian brides on the road. When he heard that his army was in deep debt, he paid them some 20,000 talents out of his own pocket (evidently from his treasury), requiring 280 tons of coins.

Being the richest man in the world with wealth acquired in a short decade, Alexander could not call on anyone with enough experience and skills to manage such huge sums. Even he, although a brilliant general and military leader, had no training in managing such enormous amounts of gold and silver. Even his shrewd father had always spent his money before even having it in his hands, but in his case, the consequences were limited because the amounts were less, and the world in which he moved was much smaller.

To Alexander’s credit, it should be noted that he leaned heavily on the existing Persian administrative system created by Cyrus the Great, but its true implementation would have taken more time since his Macedonian commanders and officers did not (yet) share Alexander’s broad vision of this new world he had created. In the end, they never did, for within one year their king was dead and they now had to manage the empire on their own. This, they could not do either, and they fought each other in fierce competition for the next forty years.