Tracking Alexander from Tyre to the Euphrates

When reading any of the Alexander histories, the routes he followed seem to be clear-cut and leave no room for any doubt at all – that is until we actually try to walk in his steps with a map in hand. Many stretches are quite obscure while others are, let’s say, not too obvious. Historians have a tendency to stick to the facts and when nothing noteworthy is happening between point A and point Z, they simply skip every step or stop in between. This is the case when Alexander leaves Tyre for Thapsacus and Arrian simply states that he marches “inland”; a straightforward route until you try to figure it out.

In antiquity, the traveler would generally follow rivers, skirt mountains and deserts, look for arable lands able to provide enough food, and spot wells for drinking water when there is no river on the way. When this is not possible, one has to be inventive. A good example of such creativity is, for instance, when Alexander has his fleet accompanying him along the desert of the Sinai; another one when he returns from Egypt to Tyre and where his army had widely depleted the rare agricultural provisions on their way south a few months earlier and he made use of his fleet once again.

From Tyre, scholars are generally torn between two possible routes leading the army inland. The first would retrace Alexander’s steps north to near Antioch-on-the Orontes along the coastline and from there turn east towards the Euphrates as Cyrus the Younger and Crassus had done, using the fleet to support his provisions. The other possible road, which I prefer because the region was more fertile in antiquity, runs east to Damascus and from there north to Homs, Hama, Apamea, and Aleppo. Or, after all, Alexander may have used a combination of both routes – why not?

Damascus is incontestably the oldest inhabited city in the world and against all odds, I am looking for traces of Alexander but find none. That is not surprising since he only passed through the city in 331 BC; there was no siege or resistance apparently. In fact, there is nothing left that could refer to Hellenistic times, as all traces generally have been erased and supplanted by Roman constructions anyway. The Romans, however, used Greek and Aramaic foundations when they laid-out Damascus, covering an area of approximately 1,500 x 750 meters, inside its protective walls. Damascus counted seven city gates, but only the Bab Sharqi on the east side has survived. This city has been discussed in detail in my earlier blog, Damascus after Alexander.

Even the modern road north from Damascus skirts the eastern flanks of the Lebanon Mountains. The countryside looks uninviting and a pretty barren stretch of some 200 kilometers that Alexander must have tackled stubbornly as always, although the land may have been more fertile in his days.

Beyond Homs, he must have aimed for Hama which lies on the Orontes River and is today one of the largest cities in Syria after Aleppo, Damascus and Homs and an obvious stop for anyone traveling between Damascus and Aleppo. Under Hellenistic rule, the city prospered since it laid on the trade routes between Greece and Asia. Hama is best known for its spectacular large wooden waterwheels – a Roman/Byzantine invention so ingenious that you have to see them in order to fully grasp their significance (see: Hama and its ingenious norias). Known under their Arabian name as norias, their earliest traces are found in a mosaic dating from 469 AD but they may have been used earlier on.

From Hama, the modern road heads straight for Aleppo without being hampered by the desert but Alexander must have stayed closer to the floodplains of the fertile Orontes River for the first stretch of his route at least and would, inevitably, have come to Apamea (see: Apamea, heritage of Alexander).

Leaving Apamea, Alexander must have veered to the northeast across a mostly desert landscape to reach Aleppo, almost one hundred kilometers away. It is not impossible that previously to his march, he organized water depots along the way.

The modern city of Aleppo has been built right on top of its antique remains, meaning that there is very little to see from when Alexander was here in 331 BC. His successor, Seleucos called it Beroea in memory of the city by the same name in Macedonia. It became the center of gravity of the Hellenistic colonization till it was conquered as the rest of Syria by Pompey in 64 BC.

The most striking feature in Aleppo is unmistakably its Citadel situated at the center of the old city that was surrounded by a five kilometres-long wall counting seven entrance gates. To my knowledge, no Greek/Hellenistic remains have been uncovered although excavations have reached the layers of the neo-Hittite period. Yet it seems that friezes belonging to a temple dedicated to the god of storm Hadad dating from the third millennium BC have been discovered.

This partially manmade hill that is crowned by the famous Citadel rises some fifty meters above the city and measures respectively 450 and 325 meters across since it has an elliptical shape. Originally the entire hill was covered with large blocks of whitish limestone that were very difficult to climb; some of these slabs are still in situ. The mound is surrounded by a moat, 22 meters deep and 30 meters wide, which has been added in the 12^th century. The inside of the Citadel is a town on its own with a hammam, a number of mosques, a palace occupied by the sons of Saladin and even a theater that is still being used. All this is obviously a very far cry from what Alexander may have found, but the panoramic view over the roofs of Aleppo cannot have been too much different, except for the presence of minarets and mosques.

Alexander arrived at Thapsacus by mid-summer 331 BC and had two (pontoon) bridges constructed over the Euphrates which, according to historians was a good 700 meters wide at this spot. There have been endless discussions about the location of this city, which has been placed at Al Raqqa, Dura-Europos and even at Deir-Ezzor further downstream. Based on the facts related by Xenophon and Eratosthenes, however, all evidence points towards Carchemish on the Turkish-Syrian border. It seems that, except for a few towering walls, there is very little left of old Thapsacus because after the construction of yet another dam the river has turned into a lake and the scant remains are nothing more than an island in the middle of the Euphrates. It is so sad to find such a historical place swallowed by the waters after centuries of survival!

It so happened that my first view of the Euphrates River was near Birecik, Turkey, on the road from Gaziantep to Sanliurfa, i.e. about 30 kilometers north of the place that has been identified as Thapsacus. Crossing this majestic, wide, blue and fast flowing river over a modern bridge, confirmed that I was truly entering Mesopotamia, the land between Euphrates and Tigris from my history books. The depiction of this being the Fertile Crescent eludes me, for the land is desolate and barren and the houses on the eastern river bank are nothing more than square colored blocks piled up against a sandy hill.

Based on Darius’ earlier crossing of the Euphrates before the Battle of Issus, it may have taken Alexander five days to move his entire force to the eastern bank. The logistics of such an operation are never discussed in detail, neither here nor at any other major river like the Nile, the Tigris, the Oxus, the Jaxartes or the Indus for that matter, but the operations much have been colossal and terribly well organized!

The modern flow of the Euphrates cannot be compared to what it was in Alexander’s days, mainly because of the many barrages that interfere, but it remains a very rewarding experience to follow the river further downstream along the Lake of al-Assad to Rasaffa, Al-Raqqa, Halabia, Deir Ezzor and finally to Dura-Europos. These basically were all Roman forts at the edge of the empire but most probably were first settled by Seleucos a few decennia earlier. Contemplating the river from among the reed fields in the near silence on an early winter evening was one of my greatest experiences. In the tiny villages in between, time has come to a standstill.

Another memorable moment was at Halabia where I climbed up to the remains of a Roman fort. From this strategic location, I could look up and down the Euphrates beneath me as the soldiers had done some 2,000 years ago. From this vantage point, I was reminded of Alexander when the occasional car crossed the rickety pontoon bridge with a resonating sound in the quiet evening air. History was simply unfolding at my feet! I was wishfully thinking to look for Thapsacus around there. 

Rasaffa, Syria – a Border town on the Euphrates

“All the land west of the Euphrates and his daughter in marriage” is what King Darius III promised to Alexander in exchange for his family, which had fallen into the hands of the Macedonian King after the Battle of Issus. I can’t help remembering these words when I stare at the fast-flowing waters of the River Euphrates on my journey, along with the many remains of mainly Roman forts on the Arabian Limes in Syria.

The first such fortification I meet after leaving Aleppo southwards is (Al-)Rasaffa in the middle of a flat, monotonous desert landscape. The first settlers here were the Assyrians in the 9th century BC, who set up a military camp. It became a desert outpost during Roman occupation whose role was mainly to keep out the Sassanids from Persia. Rasaffa flourished as it was an essential link on the caravan routes linking Aleppo to Dura Europos and Palmyra. After the Romans, it turned into a destination for pilgrims in honor of Saint Sergius. This Roman officer had converted to Christianity and was martyred in 305 because of his beliefs. This happened during the reign of Diocletian, who persecuted everybody who refused to sacrifice to Jupiter.

According to early Christian documents, Sergius and Bacchus were Roman officers and favorites of Emperor Maximian (who co-ruled for a while with Diocletian) till they openly admitted that they were Christians. The punishment for such an insult was horrible. Sergius and Bacchus were ordered to dress up as women and march through the streets. They were chastised so severally that Bacchus died. Sergius’ agony wasn’t over yet, and it is reported that boards were nailed to his feet to force him to walk to his beheading.

By the fifth century, these martyrs were so famous that the church above Sergius’ grave was restored, and Emperor Justinian I changed the name of Rasaffa into Sergiopolis, which is still used alternatively. In 616, Rasaffa succumbed to the Persian Sassanids and eventually the Umayyads. One of their Caliphs, Hisham, was very interested in architecture, and he took care to rebuild the city and elected it as his summer residence. Like its neighbors, Rasaffa was ultimately destroyed by the Persian Abbasids, and the Mongols completed the job in 1247. Today, the only people we see here are the local Bedouins tending their sheep.

The layout of Rasaffa is typical Roman, mainly thanks to the Byzantine Emperor Anastase: a large walled square of 300 x 500 meters sitting on the hard steppe soil at the edge of the desert. What makes Rasaffa unique is the local pink gypsum crystal rocks used for its construction. It is very similar to quartz, and its effect is sublime as its particles reflect the sunlight into millions of sparkles.

The entrance gates are located in the middle of each wall, the northern gate being the principal one with three arches guarded on each side by a square bastion. This is the starting point of the Cardo Maximus with its houses, shops, storage areas, and even the so-called “Tetraconch” church. This church has the shape of the Byzantine cross that was very popular in Byzantine times. It seems that the origin of this kind of church is to be found here in Syria. This church is also known as the Martyrium, a marvelous construction with capitals and arches that look like lacework. 

Further, down the Cardo, I come across three enormous underground water cisterns with their adjacent water distribution system – extremely ingenious! The largest cistern measures 58 x 22 meters, and the water level could rise to 13 meters. The inner walls are still covered with a waterproof coat of cement. Based on these reservoirs, scholars were able to calculate the size of Rasaffa’s population. The city had no spring and no access to running water and depended on these large cisterns to collect the rain that fell mainly in winter and spring.

From here, I make a left turn towards the Great Basilica dedicated to Saint Sergius, dating from 559, where the bodies of Sergius and Bacchus were interred. This church is also shining in its exquisite quartz-like stones. The triple-aisled Christian church is intermingled with the large square hall used in the 13th and 14th centuries as a mosque. Two alcoves of the church were promoted to mihrabs. It is pretty interesting to see how the Christians and Muslims lived side by side during the Middle Ages, as an inscription tells us. Curiously enough, I miss these mihrabs altogether, fascinated by the oval-shaped bema in the very middle of the Basilica, hardly a few steps higher than the surrounding floor – a rather unique feature. This church became an important pilgrimage site in the East. The Byzantine army considered Sergius and Bacchus as their protectors, and many more sanctuaries were dedicated to them. Today, these saints are still the patrons of the Christian nomads. 

Close to this Basilica and the breach in the southeastern corner of the city walls, I find the remains of the palace which Caliph Hisham built for himself. In this square building, all the rooms lay around the central courtyard. Unfortunately, consecutive destructions have destroyed most of the palace.

Otherwise, not much remains today to testify to Rasaffa’s grandeur. The city looks pretty desolate with deep pits all around you: craters that testify of unfortunate vandalism. Treasure hunters always managed to find a way to possible hidden fortunes. 

To make the story about Saint Sergius complete, I also visit the Monastery of Mar Sarkis (i.e., Saint Sergius) between Damascus and Homs, just before Maalula. Here the Aramaic language is still very much alive. This 4th-century monastery was built on top of an earlier pagan temple high on top of a nearby gorge. The access door roughly hewn in the crude rock is a low one, meant to impose humility on the visitor, and is said to be “very old” – just how old remains vague, for everything inside looks timeless. The church is divided into three aisles and is definitely Byzantine. Its walls are reinforced by wooden beams incorporated horizontally between the layers of stone to make the construction earthquake-proof. So smart! Thanks to these wooden beams and carbon-dating technology, it has been established that the church is 2,000 years old. Initially, these walls were enhanced with frescos, and a few exposed parts reveal scenes with wonderfully fresh colors.

A striking element is a central altar in the shape of a horseshoe dedicated to Saint Sergius, entirely made of marble with a 7 cm high border, typical of an early Christian example. In fact, it has all the elements of a pagan altar except that there is no gutter to evacuate the blood of the sacrificed animals. I find this terribly exciting – never heard about it and certainly never seen any! The northern altar is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, a simple square shape with an edge of 4 cm high and without the pagan gutter. Otherwise, several original Byzantine icons represent the Mother of God, a double icon of the Crucifixion of Christ and the Last Supper, and one of a sitting John the Baptist smiling – quite unusual. Well, so much for Saint Sergius or Mar Sarkis anyway.

[Click here for more pictures of the cities along the Euphrates]

The War in Syria, what will happen to its heritage?

The loss of human lives and the displacement of people are the major consequences of any war and the present conflict in Syria is no exception.

Since ancient times, Syria always was on the crossroads of civilizations fighting for a better life or of kings wanting to expand their territory out of need, ambition or greed. Whatever the reason, Syria was caught in the middle. But there are enough sources that tell us about that facet. I personally want to draw your attention to the loss of Syria’s heritage due to the looting and robbing of their historical treasures that have come to us over thousands of years. 

Cities like Damascus, Aleppo or Homs make the headlines on a regular base, but most vulnerable are the small towns in remote areas of Syria’s vast desert because they are the easiest places for the treasure hunters. These places may or may not fall within my immediate field of interest around Alexander and Hellenism, but they are not less precious to humanity.

The main problem for these remote places is in the fact that in the years just before the outbreak of the war, the Syrian government had built 25 cultural museums all over the country in order to encourage tourism and to keep the local artifacts on the site. Yet the theft of entire ancient cities deprives future generations of their birthright and their true origins. Let’s not forget that Damascus and Aleppo are among the oldest cities in the world – how much of this heritage will reach future generations?

During my visit to Syria a few years ago, I have been confronted with many smaller ancient cities that truly stood out, either in the middle of the widespread desert or in key positions along the banks of the Euphrates River as opposed to the larger cities which are strung along the western border of the country, the most fertile part, of course.

One of the places I saw was, for instance, the magnificent Crusaders’ castle of Crac des Chevaliers which Lawrence of Arabia described as “perhaps the best preserved and most wholly admirable castle in the world”, which has now been shelled, damaging the inside chapel. There were the so-called “Dead Cities”, i.e. hundreds of abandoned Byzantine towns littering the landscape of Northwestern Syria, which have suffered in the recent years from pitched battles as there is no official authority to protect them. This is the area of the San Simeon’s monastery, where this saint is said to have spent forty years of his life on top a column. Even the unique Monastery of Sednaya founded by nobody less than Emperor Justinian and where I was treated to prayers in Aramaic, the language of Jesus, has been damaged by shellfire, damaging its oldest section dating from 574. What is beyond my comprehension is that even the Syrians’ own mosques have not been spared. The mosque of Deera, one of the oldest Islamic structures in Syria has been damaged, and the minaret of the Great Mosque in Aleppo has been blasted recently without any consideration.

I hear that in many cases armed rebels sought refuge behind the strong walls of ancient castles but were preceded by the Syrian military who did not hesitate to blast away parts of these historical buildings. The same military is reported to have dug deep trenches inside Roman ruins also.

Some splendid Roman mosaics of Apamea have been attacked by looters using bulldozers to rip up the Roman floors to take them away. They even managed to take two giant capitals from atop the columns lining up along the Decumanus, the impressive east-west road of Apamea. According to an article in the Mainzer Beobachter of 29 April 2013, the situation is even worse and they publish aerial photographs of the site taken in Summer 2011 as compared to a more recent one taken in Winter 2013. Note the countless pits dug by treasure seekers and looters.

Even southern Bosra, home of one of the best-preserved Roman theatres in the world, has not escaped the destruction of several ancient buildings. Several museums, local or not, have been looted, from Homs, Deir Ezzor, Raqqa, Maarat al-Numan to Qalaar Jaabar. In Homs, the old churches, houses, and streets no longer exist according to archaeological reports. Items from the Aleppo Museum have been transferred to the vaults of the central bank in Damascus, it seems, but that is far from enough. And then, there is the great site of Palmyra, entirely unprotected. Reuters reports that the army has positioned themselves in the museum located between the town and the Roman ruins. They mention that soldiers are camping now in the luxury hotels that once were popular with the tourists and they also positioned snipers behind the old walls of the Roman theatre.

Frightening and terrifying prospects for Syria’s rich and old history. We have seen what happened in Iraq and in Afghanistan. Syria probably will not fare any better – unfortunately.