About the Paeonians

So very little is known about the Paeonians, who occupied the lands north of ancient Macedonia. 

The borders of Paeonia were not clearly defined. As an Illyrian tribe, they settled along the upper valley of the Vadar River, the Axios, as it entered Macedonia. The country was roughly squeezed between the Dardanians and the Macedonians (see: The King is dead, long live the King!), matching more or less the state of modern Northern Macedonia. The Paeonians comprised Illyrian tribes such as the Agrianes and the lesser-known Derrones, Doberes, Laiaians, Siriopaeones, and Paeoplai. 

In 358 BC, one year into his kingship, Philip defeated the Paeonians and secured his northern border. By doing so, he created a sort of buffer zone between Macedonia and the tribes of the Danube further north. Paeonia controlled the trade route up the Axios River that emptied into the Gulf of Thessaloniki at Pella, the capital of Macedonia. 

It was probably at this time that Parmenion, one of the Paeonian chieftains, was promoted to the rank of general at Philip's side. We often forget this interesting background for a man who served both Philip and Alexander for so many years. 

Alexander levied one ilai of about 150 Paeonian cavalry when he started his eastern campaign. A reinforcement of 500 Paeonians joined him in Egypt in 332 BC, and another 600 cavalry in Susa in 331 BC. 

If we consult Arrian, we learn that Alexander often used the Paeonians as part of the "sacrificial pawn." This was an elite unit that he placed in front of his right flank to keep the Persians busy and to create enough confusion whereby he would find a wedge in the enemy's line.

The first such attack is described at the Granicus when advanced Scouts, the Paeonians, one infantry company, and a leading cavalry squadron were sent forward. At the same time, Alexander moved in an oblique line to pull the Persians on the opposite riverbank further to his right to create a gap in their lines. A similar move was made at Issus when he threw forward his advanced Scouts together with the Paeonians and the archers to force an opening in the Persian line. 

At the Battle of Gaugamela, the situation was different. As Alexander led his cavalry ever further to the right, Darius sent the Scythian chariots forward to cut off Alexander's progress. At this point, the Paeonian contingent and the mercenaries were sent to neutralize their progress, in which they were successful. 

After that, the Paeonians are no longer mentioned, and it is generally admitted that they settled in one of Alexander's newly built cities. 

What brought me to talk about the Paeonians is the recent excavations at the city of Stobi, which was founded in the 6^th century BC. It stood out as a trade center and a military and religious center. It was also the seat of the Paeonian Kings and the capital of the later Roman province Salutaris. 

Today, the city can be found close to the village of Gradsko, situated about 80 kilometers from Skopje in North Macedonia. The archaeological site covers some 27 hectares, spread over three terraces. Besides the ever-present theater, a significant number of buildings have been exposed. 

The major reference point at Stobi is, as always, the theater that dates from the 2^nd-3^rd century AD and could seat as many as 17,000 spectators. 

So far, several roads have been mapped out and named. The Via Axia, for instance, is one of the main streets running east-west and would match the Roman Decumanus. The Via Theodosia was parallel to the Via Axia, unearthed between the House of Peristerius and the Palace of Theodosius. Another important road is known as Via Principalis Inferior, running from the main city fountain, past edifices like the Central Basilica, the House of Partenis, the Palace of Theodosius, and the House of Psalms. The fountain was on a small square where the Via Axia and the Via Principalis Inferior met.

The Northern Basilica, Civil Basilica, Central Basilica, and Episcopal Basilica from the 5^th century AD clearly stand out because of their striking mosaics and tall columns. The private houses are interesting for their layout, rich mosaic floors, and imposing colonnades. The Palace of Theodosius is where Emperor Theodosius lived in 388 AD. It is of interest because of its remarkable floors in the opus sectile. In the pool area, a splendid bronze satyr was discovered, together with bronze sculptures of Apollo, Aphrodite, and Lar, and a marble head of Serapis. Some of these precious artifacts date from the 2nd century BC, indicating Stobi's Hellenistic connections or roots. These pieces can be admired at the National Museum of Belgrade.

[Picture from Discovering Macedonia]

So far, the information about the excavations and the history of Stobi could not be more sketchy. Even the available maps provide only basic outlines. It will be interesting to see how the research and the mapping will progress in the years to come.

There is no reference to Alexander or his father, but it is common that the Romans erased the traces of the previous occupations. Like their Balkan neighbors, the Paeonians have no written history, and all information comes from their conquerors and/or enemies, which is not always reliable.

[The maps are provided by the St Louis Community Center]

Looting, not only a plague in war-torn countries

This time, the news comes from Shumen, a city located some 88 km east of Varna in Bulgaria, where four men have been arrested for trading and possessing archaeological artefacts. Nothing new, I would say, were it not that the police came into action and seized 19 marble sculptures and plates as well as some 9,000 Roman coins together with molds to produce imitations. More metal artefacts, together with some 80 coins, were retrieved from another house. Also found were a Greek altar, a lion’s head, a number of ancient figurines, and the central part of a Greek sarcophagus showing the head of Medusa.

The three Bulgarians who were arrested face imprisonment of one to six years and fines ranging between BGN 1,000 and 20,000 if convicted. Why do I have the impression that they will not be convicted?

More alarming news comes from the Museum of Macedonia in Skopje, FYROM (meanwhile renamed the Republic of Northern Macedonia). Here, six people, including two former officials from the museum, have been found guilty of stealing 160 artefacts from the museum between November 2011 and October 2013. The items, among which we count silver and gold jewelry, all date from the fourth century AD and have been sold abroad through obscure channels, making it impossible to trace them.

It takes more than sledgehammers to kill our culture and heritage, and for what? A quick buck or simple greed of our proud human race? Very sad …

[Pictures are from Archaeological News Network]

Alexander’s psychological warfare in Pelium, Illyria

The name Selca e Poshtme in Albania did not ring any bells, and I was quite surprised to learn that this was an Illyrian necropolis and a royal one on top of that. I had no idea what an Illyrian tomb would or could look like, as I had never seen one before. But as soon as I stood in front of these tombs cut out of the face of the rocky wall, I felt at home right away, for they looked so familiar. I would have sworn they were Macedonian! 

I mentioned this site in my earlier travel story through Albania (see: Looking for Illyrian remains in Albania). Still, it deserves more attention since it is unique, more so since Selca e Poshtme is thought to be ancient Pelium.

For a start, there are five tombs, all belonging to the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. The oldest of these tombs is rather plain, with a rectangular burial chamber behind the usual antechamber, and is clearly related to the monumental Macedonian graves from the second half of the fourth century BC.

The next tomb was built around 270 BC and proudly shows a monumental façade of 6.4 meters wide and 3 meters high with an Ionic portico. This type of grave, otherwise unknown, has an open chamber in its center that was only used as a cenotaph (no body inside), but underneath the mosaic floor in front of the façade was the actual burial chamber where bones and urns were found together with some grave goods. The narrow alcove contained two sarcophagi decorated with reliefs shaped like a mortuary bed. Unfortunately, this tomb was looted towards the end of the third century BC, making it impossible to connect it to any specific person who must have been of high importance. On either side of the half-circular top entrance, a relief has been added between the two Ionic columns; on the left, we see a helmet, typically referring to Hellenistic rulers, and on the right, there is an Illyrian shield (looking very Macedonian!). This shield seems to connect the tomb with a local king. On the other hand, the helmet is nearly identical to the one found during WW1 near Lake Ohrid (now at the Antike Sammlung Museum in Berlin) that carries the inscription Basileos Monouniou, i.e., "of King Monounios." Sadly, there is no way to ensure that both elements belong together, but it certainly indicates that Monounios' rule reached as far as the Lyncestian lakes.

There are two other relatively simple tombs, one of which is characterized by a vaulted chamber in Macedonian style from the late 3rd century BC, and the other from the second half of the 4th century BC, showing a finely decorated "death bed."

Another spectacular tomb is the last one in the row, which is shaped like a miniature theater and belongs to the third century BC. The tomb proper is dug under the center stage, so to speak, making believe that relatives could gather around the deceased seated on the surrounding tiers. Presently, the tomb is filled with groundwater that mirrors the theater effect weirdly.

Yet, why are these tombs here, and where does this King Monounios fit in? The site of the necropolis is that of an old quarry that was used by the citizens to build their city and walls. This is supposedly the ancient city of Pelium, perched high on an acropolis that overlooks the River Shkumbin. In the middle of the 4th century BC, the Illyrian city was protected by a wall and must have been buzzing with life. The fact that these tombs are so close to the city is an indication by itself that they must be royal ones.

Pelium is indeed mentioned by Arrian as a border fortress when Alexander the Great crossed the area on his way back from the Danube campaign in 335 BC and faced the Illyrians' revolt. Cleitus, the formidable king of the Dardanians (from around Kosovo), had persuaded the Autariatae (from around Bosnia) to join forces to attack Alexander on his march, and even the Taulantians (from around Tirana) were willing to join Cleitus. Alexander had to act quickly to avoid being enclosed on all sides and promptly reached Paeonia (Skopje), crossed the plains of Florina to the heart of Illyria at Pelium, where Cleitus was holding this fortress. The Macedonian king arrived before Glaucias, king of the Taulantians, could join forces with Cleitus. According to Arrian, the town was surrounded by thickly wooded heights of which nothing much remains. Cleitus' troops were posted in these woods from where they hoped to attack the Macedonians. Still, as soon as Alexander charged, the enemy abandoned their protected position and fled inside the walls of Pelium, where Alexander kept them under close watch.

As he was getting ready to attack the city, Glaucias and his sizable force of Taulantians appeared on the nearby wooded hilltops, putting Alexander between two fires. He was in a precarious position, for his only way out was a steep, narrow path above the river. So Alexander played one of his masterly psychological cards. He drew the main body of his infantry in a massive formation 120 men deep, with on either wing 200 cavalrymen with the orders to obey his orders smartly. The heavy infantry was then commanded in a succession of maneuvers, pointing their spears forward and upward and making right and left turns. The entire phalanx then moved forward, wheeled around at each command, and executed a series of intricate movements. The enemy was shaken by this display of discipline and left their position on the lower slopes. At this stage, Alexander called his men to raise the battle cry and to clash their spears against their shields. It must have been a frightening sight and sound for the Taulantians, who hastily sought shelter under the city walls.

A reduced party, however, was still holding a hilltop that was in Alexander's way. He sent out a small detachment of Companions and personal guards in their direction, but upon their approach, the enemy withdrew. Alexander then occupied the hill and ordered about 2,000 men to cross the river and form a solid front on the other bank facing the enemy. Meanwhile, Alexander stayed put on his hilltop, keeping a watchful eye on the wooded area where Glaucias and his troops had retreated. Surely enough, as soon as the natives saw the Macedonians crossing the river, they seized the moment to attack Alexander and his party before they followed. Alexander reacted immediately with a counter-attack while the infantry raised their battle cry from the river below. The enemy's ranks broke, and Alexander quickly instructed his party to advance at the double to the river. He was the first to cross to set up his artillery on the riverbank. He ordered them to fire with every possible missile as far as they could to stop the enemy, while at the same time, he had his archers, who by now were mid-stream, shooting their volleys in the same direction. Glaucias was no fool and held his army out of range. The Macedonians reached safety without any casualties.

Three days later, Alexander, upon learning that Cleitus and Glaucias had not posted sentries around their nearby camp, which was not even protected by a palisade or a trench, immediately decided to attack them by night. Caught by surprise, the enemy had no time to organize a defense, and many were killed on the spot, while others fled in panic. Alexander pressed his enemies far into the Taulantian Mountains. Cleitus moved to Pelium and set it afire before seeking refuge with Glaucias. For now, Alexander had at least one enemy less to face.

At this time, a more pressing matter demanded his attention: Thebes had revolted and called the other Greeks to end Macedonian rule. To motivate their cause, the Thebans went even so far as to spread the rumor that Alexander had died in Illyria! This required a drastic change of plans, and luckily for Alexander, the Illyrians did not raise arms against him again. Within two weeks, Alexander appeared before the walls of Thebes, but that is another story.

The early years of Alexander's kingship are widely ignored, and Arrian seems to be the only source to mention the young king's northern campaigns – no wonder the name of Pelium (even less Selca e Poshtme) didn't ring a bell with me right away. But isn't it exciting when names and places can be tied together in such an unexpected way? Archaeology in Albania is still in its infancy, it seems, and excavations are merely carried out by the French or Italians. There is still a lot of work to be done here in Pelium. So far, our knowledge is based on Arrian and coins found in cities like Apollonia (Albania) and Epidamnos/Dyrrhachion (modern Dürres, Albania). Still, I feel confident that one day the history of Hellenistic or even Classical Greece in this country will be revealed. That will be my day, of course!

Standing here in this desolate and isolated landscape, it is hard to believe that a grand capital like Pelium once crowned this very hill above the Illyrian necropolis or that it was linked by important roads to other cities of the ancient world. In Roman times, it became one of the many stops along the famous Via Egnatia, whose trail is still easy to follow.

[Photos 1 and 2 are courtesy of Wim]
[More pictures can be found by clicking on this link of mine]

Skopje and Alexander the Great - a two-faced story

As if it were not enough to put up that horrible 13-meter-high statue of Alexander the Great in the very center of Skopje, which the Macedonians from the FYROM (meanwhile renamed the Republic of Northern Macedonia) have allegedly tuned down to “Hero on Horseback” (this is at least what they said, see Alexander the Great in Skopje), they now show up with extra reinforcements.

Believe it or not, they just brought in more of Alexander’s army! Eight bronze phalanx soldiers and eight bronze lions are presently being put into place to liven up the scene! (See the article by the Sofia News Agency). Why eight and why eight lions (kingship?), I don’t know. In any case, it makes you wonder whether this is only a first addition or if there is more to come. I fail to see why they renamed the equestrian statue “Hero on Horseback” only a few weeks ago while these bronze soldiers and animals obviously were nearly ready to roll out of the workshops. This Macedonian phalanx clearly belongs to Alexander the Great. So much for the naivety (or stupidity) of the bystanders - and of the politicians!

 

[picture by actualno.com]

They just don’t seem to get it there in Skopje – or they just don’t want to. No wonder Greece is extremely unhappy with this situation and considers it as a provocation, nothing less, and they are right. The event has now even reached the EU, where the Enlargement Commissioner, Stefan Fule, declared that if Macedonia (i.e., FYROM = Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) continues this kind of action and fails to make progress in its reforms (the name Macedonia, even converted into FYROM, is not to Greece’s satisfaction), they will lose their EU candidate status. Will that threat be of any help? I have serious doubts.

Since its independence in 1991, the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) has not only “stolen” the name Macedonia but also repeatedly “hijacked” several historical figures from their neighbors, Alexander is not their first. I hear that the Bulgarians have a similar complaint about the five-meter high marble monument of Tsar Samuil recently erected in Skopje, for he was Bulgaria’s greatest hero fighting against Byzantium – nothing to do with Macedonia.

You just cannot “borrow” a hero from a neighboring country simply because you want or need one. That is a basic privilege for each country individually and one that should be respected.

Watch the movie here.