Lysimachos in the wake of Alexander – Part II

 [continued from Lysimachos in the wake of Alexander - Part I]

Skipping the many details and intertwined relationships, let us pick up the story when Seleucos added his forces to those of Lysimachos and his allies to fight the elderly Antigonus Monophthalmus and his son Demetrios Poliorketes. The battle took place in 301 BC at Ipsus and ended with Antigonus’ defeat and death. The victors subsequently divided his territory among them. Lysimachos acquired a significant share with Lydia, Ionia, and Phrygia, including the entire north coast of Asia Minor. Seleucos received Syria, and Cassander was now secure in Macedonia and Greece. 

Until then, Antigonus Monophthalmus had been the most successful among the generals in recreating Alexander’s empire. His son Demetrios attempted to follow in his father’s footsteps, but he lacked a broader view. 

Around that time, Nicaea died, and Lysimachos honored her by naming a city in Asia Minor after her, modern Iznik in Turkey. 

As Seleucos was growing ever more powerful, Lysimachos thought it wise to seek the support of Ptolemy. Around 300 BC, he elected to marry Arsinoe, the daughter of Ptolemy, and his mistress Berenice. Amastris, as said above, stepped back and divorced herself from Lysimachos, moving back to Herakleia Pontus. 

Although this marriage of Lysimachos was not a happy one, Arsinoe stayed with her husband till his death. She bore him three sons: Ptolemy I Epigonos, Lysimachos, and Philip. Her jealousy, however, incited her to convince her husband to kill his oldest son and heir, Agathocles (from his marriage to Nicaea), based on treason. The murder happened in 284 BC despite the young man successfully leading his father’s army in combat. Although he was only in his early thirties, his men loved him much. 

Meanwhile, Cassander died in 297 BC. His sons were more interested in fighting each other for power than ruling the country. Macedonia eventually fell into the hands of Demetrios. So, in 287 BC, Lysimachos agreed to fight alongside Pyrrhus to drive Demetrios out of Macedonia. They successfully ruled the country jointly until Lysimachos broke up with Pyrrhus and seized Macedonia for himself. 

Lysimachos’ greed and thirst for power equaled that of the other generals, now kings in their realms. The fighting was not over yet. 

Seleucos, in 282 BC, broke his alliance with Lysimachos as he attempted to take his territory in Asia Minor. The final clash happened in Lydia at Corupedium in 281 BC. It ended with the death of Lysimachos. By then, the King of Thracia must have been in his late 70s. He had lived a life of almost continuous and repeated battles, inspired by the greatest conqueror of all times, Alexander the Great. 

Like the other new self-proclaimed kings, Lysimachos had minted his own coins. However, he did not follow them by stamping his personal image on these coins but kept using the effigy of Alexander instead. Could that be seen as a late posthumous homage and tribute to his boyhood friend? 

Lysimachos is also being honored as a friend and benefactor of Samothrace. He received the title of Lysimachos Euergetes as inscribed on the altar erected in his honor and used during annual festivals. A stele found on the island reads a dedication of King Lysimachos from between 288 and 281 BC. Based on the surviving first fifteen lines, Lysimachos was honored for restoring sacred lands on the mainland initially granted to Samothrace by either Philip II or Alexander the Great or by Philip Arrhidaeus III and Alexander IV. There were boundary stones for said sacred land near Alexandroupolis in Greece. 

Money was never an issue throughout all those years of bickering, conniving, and fighting. Lysimachos, like all the other generals, had cashed his share of Alexander’s fortune. In his case, it was a mere 9,000 talents in silver and gold, roughly worth several billion in today’s value. The money was safely kept on the Acropolis of Pergamon. However, when Attalus III gave the city to Rome in 133 BC, the entire treasure (not limited to Lysimachos’ share) fell into Roman hands. This fortune contributed largely to the rise of the Roman Empire – but that is another story.

Alexander the Great: The making of a Myth

For those living in the U.K. or transiting through London this winter, it may be an excellent opportunity to stop at this exhibition about Alexander the Great organized by The British Library. 

[Picture: © Museum of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge © Hamish Steele, © Richard Stoneman]

The British Library was once part of the British Museum but moved in 1973 to a separate building situated between the railway stations of St. Pancras and Euston in London. 

It is one of the largest libraries in the world and contains 14 million books among between 170 and 200 million other items. The Library also organizes exhibitions. This time, Alexander the Great is put in the limelight as it centers on the myths that surround him since before his death and are still very much alive after more than 2000 years. 

This unique event displays old astrological clay tablets, ancient papyri, medieval manuscripts, movies, and video games. European, Middle Eastern and Asian cultures competed to make him the kind of hero they wanted him to be. This is true for the past but also in today’s world. 

Trying to separate myth from reality is a near-impossible task. As I so often stated, there is not one truth or one Alexander as we all create our own vision of this great man, who was king, emperor, and Pharaoh, but also a general, philosopher, and visionary. 

Who Alexander was as a man is something each of us has to define for ourselves. 

This unique exhibition will run from 21 October 2022 to 19 February 2023.

For the occasion, a special catalog will be released on 21 October 2022 by the British Library Publishing. The work is written by Richard Stoneman and will be published under the same title as the exhibition, Alexander the Great: the making of a myth (ISBN: 978-0712354769).

How the Greeks were perceived in Asia

We are so used to looking through the eyes of the West that only a few of us are aware that among the Persians and Indians, the Greeks go under different names. 

Ever since the reign of Darius I, the Greeks were called Yauna or Yona, as documented in the inscription of Bisutun from c.520 BC. In the 5th century BC, Herodotus mentions the Yaunas in his Histories, linking them mainly to the Ionians, who lived along the coastline of Asia Minor. The historian also specifies that under Persian rule, the Ionian Greeks constituted one tax district that included the Pamphylians, Lycians, Magnesians, Aeolians, and Carians. 

Yauna may simply be a transliteration of the Greek for ‘Ionians,’ and the name surprisingly appears in Sanskrit literature and in Sri Lanka’s Mahavamsa (historical chronicle) – a very long way from home! 

The name also has a corrupted form with the Assyrians, who called the Greeks Iawanu, and the Babylonians used Yaman or Yamanaya. Nowadays, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic languages use Yunan, which clearly derives from the ancient Persian Yauna. 

The Persians, as we know, did not stop their conquest of Greece at the coast of modern Turkey. They soon mounted an expedition to conquer Macedonia with its rich gold and silver mines. 

An inscription to that effect can be seen on Darius’ tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam, where the Macedonians are called the “Greeks with sun hats” based on their typical headwear. 

The same Macedonians threatened Persia in 340 BC when Philip II besieged Perinthus, a vital point on the Hellespont. In the end, Alexander the Great crossed into Asia and conquered Persia. How much of this campaign has been recorded in their literature remains vague. It is impossible that a well-organized civilization like Persia’s has not kept written records. Could we assume they are either still hidden or have not yet been deciphered? 

Alexander and his Macedonians marched on to Central Asia and even India. Ancient sources use the word Yonaka when referring to the later Graeco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, who became kingdoms in their own right. They were the result of those veterans left in the regions by Alexander, who built a civilization based on Greek principles. They rose to power in the late 4th century BC and ruled until the first decade of the 1st century AD. 

Yavana is the word that lived on in the medieval literature of India. It was generally used to define foreigners, but until approximately 1000 AD, they meant the Greeks. 

As always, there is so much more in a word than we assume at first sight. In this case, it ends up being a story on its own.

Lysimachos in the wake of Alexander – Part I

Lysimachos was in Babylon at the time of Alexander’s death in 323 BC. Almost immediately, anarchy erupted as the king had no successor. Every single one of his generals felt entitled to succeed Alexander pending the coming of age of his yet unborn son. 

The War of the Diadochi had begun and would last for the next forty years or so. The generals took sides, changed sides, and made peace treaties but coveted each other’s possessions soon after. Their lust for power led them to conquer ever more land. They eliminated each other systematically until around 280 BC; four contenders remained: Ptolemy in Egypt, Seleucos in Asia, Antipater/Cassander in Macedonia/Greece, and Lysimachos in Thracia. 

Lysimachos’ origin is obscure, and the best guess is that he was born around 361 BC to Thessalian parents living in Pella. He was educated at the court of Philip and probably was one of his Bodyguards. He was only a few years older than Alexander, and we can safely assume that he joined the young prince in Mieza to attend Aristotle’s teaching with the other selected young men. 

Historians hardly mention Lysimachos in Alexander’s early campaigns, although he was present throughout the king’s conquests of Persia as one of his trusted Bodyguards. This lack of information does not imply that Lysimachos was not a valued element in Alexander’s organization. Many positions beyond that of general were of the utmost importance. Take, for instance, the logistics of the entire enterprise, or the scouting parties to locate otherwise hidden enemies or find the appropriate location for the following camping site, or escorting Queen Sisygambis and her retinue till their arrival at Susa, and many other tasks. 

Lysimachos joined the ranks of the Companion Cavalry, maybe after several of Alexander’s masterly reshuffling of the army according to his needs. 

Except for him being mauled by a lion in Syria, he was not documented until 328 BC, when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes River. There is no further information. 

Lysimachos participated in the siege of Sangala (see: The siege of Sangala). Alexander lost less than one hundred men in this fierce fight, but an excessive number of 1200 soldiers were wounded, including Lysimachos. 

He was evidently present at the Susa Wedding in 324 BC, but we don’t know the name of his bride. Since she is not mentioned when he moves to Thracia, we may conclude that he left her behind after Alexander’s death, at which time he became ruler of Thracia. 

The position of Thracia was strategically crucial as the land extended to the Black Sea and the Hellespont, both major links with Asia. Upon arrival, Lysimachos faced the rebellious Thracian tribes fighting each other. Their most powerful dynasty was the Seuthes. However, Lysimachos was quickly able to establish his authority. 

As the War of Alexander’s Successors raged on with the other generals fighting among themselves, Lysimachos managed to stay away from their intrigues. 

In 321 BC, to stabilize his position further, he decided to marry Nicaea, Antipater’s daughter, after Perdiccas had refused her hand. This alliance secured his position vis-à-vis both Antipater and Cassander. The couple would have three children, one son Agathocles, and two daughters. 

In 315 BC, a revolt broke out among the cities on the Black Sea. AntigonusMonophthalmus, who reigned over most of Asia Minor, saw an opportunity to annex Thracia to his own territory and stirred up the local tribes against their king. Once again, Lysimachos managed to suppress the revolt and consolidate his power. Peace was reached in 311 BC. 

This revolt drew him into the Succession Wars, and he sided with Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucos against AntigonusMonophthalmus. In 309 BC, to secure the Hellespont, he built a new city, Lysimachia, in a commanding location on the Chersonese peninsula. 

By 305 BC, all the contestants in the Wars of the Diadochi adopted the title of king and Lysimachos followed suit by assuming the royal title as well. He was now an equal player in the succession game of the thrones. 

In 302 BC, Lysimachos again joined forces with Cassander to conquer Asia Minor from Antigonus Monophthalmus. As winter approached, he set up camp in Herakleia Pontus, where he met Amastris, granddaughter of Queen Sisygambis, who had been given as wife to Craterus at the Susa Wedding. She left her husband after he took Arsinoe of Egypt for his wife, who became the widowed Queen of Herakleia. So, Lysimachos married Amastris, but this marriage didn’t last long, for soon afterward, he decided to take as spouse Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy. Consequently, Amastris left Lysimachos and returned to Herakleia Pontus (see: Time to reconnect with Princess Amastris). 

In fact, with his marriages, Lysimachos was in line with the other Successors or contenders who still aimed at re-establishing Alexander’s empire. Marriage was much cheaper than war to conquer more land.

 [continued in Part II]

A full day colloquium about excavations in Afghanistan.

 Under the title:

 100 ans au service du patrimoine culturel afghan

La Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan

 The Louvre organizes a full-day event on June 17, 2022. Different speakers will highlight different subjects. Entry is free and it is a unique opportunity for those aficionados who happen to be in Paris that day.

Tête de Buddha

Informations générales
Tarif	ENTRÉE LIBRE
Lieu	AUDITORIUM MICHEL LACLOTTE
Horaire(s)	9H30

de 9h30 à 18h30
Créée en 1922, la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan travaille à l'étude, la protection et la mise en valeur du riche patrimoine culturel afghan.

Aujourd'hui où le patrimoine afghan est dans une situation difficile, cette célébration a pour but de faire connaître ce qui a été fait mais aussi de mobiliser l'attention de tous pour protéger cet héritage culturel si fragile.

CONSULTEZ ET TÉLÉCHARGEZ LE PROGRAMME DÉTAILLÉ

20220617_COLLOQUE_AFGHANISTAN_BAT WEB_0.pdf (louvre.fr)

This colloquium could usefully complete the wealth of information shared in the book: Le trésor perdu des rois d’Afghanistan by Philippe Flandrin, which I referred to on my blog.

Afghanistan definitely merits a lot more attention than it does right now, and also from the archaeological point of view.