Alexandria’s Graeco-Roman Museum finally reopens

We are all familiar with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo which holds the many treasures from the Egyptian dynasties including the world-famous gold mask of Tutankhamun. 

However, few people are aware of the Graeco-Roman Museum with its 40,000 artifacts from the Greek and Roman eras. It has been closed since 2005 for renovation and finally reopens. It covers artwork from before the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander in 331 BC, the ensuing Ptolemaic Dynasty that ended with Cleopatra in 30 BC, and the Roman occupation up to the Muslim conquest of 641 AD. 

The newly arranged collection is presented in an up-to-date manner as shown in this short video.

The most recent statues and artifacts to enter this museum are those recovered by Franck Goddio and his team during underwater excavations in the broad Nile estuary particularly from Thonis-Heracleion. 

Noteworthy is, for instance, the stele discovered at Thonis-Heracleion in 2000, displayed next to its twin uncovered in Naucratis in 1899. It is quite unique to find two identical inscriptions holding a decree of Nectanebo I. They state that the pharaoh raised subsidies for the temple using the taxes levied from Greek trade and manufacturing in Thonis and Naucratis. The steles also confirm that Thonis and Heracleion were respectively the Egyptian and the Greek name for the same town “at the entrance of the sea of the Greeks”. 

Another striking addition from Thonis-Heracleion is the statue of a Ptolemaic queen, 2.20 meters high made of black granodiorite and dated to the 2^nd century BC. It is attributed to either Cleopatra Selene II (185-180) or Cleopatra III (116-115 BC) and is executed in a mix of Greek and Egyptian styles. Alternatively, it could represent Cleopatra Thea, the queen consort of three Syrian kings of the Seleucid Empire between 150 to 125 BC. 

A new acquisition of the Graeco-Roman Museum is the so-called Neilos-bust, an astonishingly well-preserved rendition of the god of the Nile in greywacke (a variety of hard sandstone). It was found in the temple area of the Nile’s Canopus mouth. 

In-depth research by Franck Goddio revealed that Graeco-Egyptian statues in this dark Egyptian stone were probably made in specialist workshops in Alexandria. The Nile bust is of particular high-quality greywacke. 

Of an entirely different order is the Naos of the Decades, a small chapel-like shrine for statues of the divinities at the most sacred place of the temple. During Franck Goddio’s underwater exploration of the Bay of Abukir, he discovered walls of this exceptional naos, parts of which were already at the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria and the Louvre in Paris. 

The Naos of the Decades was a shrine to Shu, the god of air, which predated the Ptolemaic era by more than fifty years. The most remarkable feature may well be the calendar engraved on the outside surfaces of its walls. The Egyptians divided the year into sections of ten days or decades, 36 in all - represented here by 36 squares - making a total of 360 days. A 37^th square was added for the five days to complete the year. Each square showed a text of an astrological nature about the influence of the stars and Shu on daily life during the specific period of ten days. One such text tells how Shu created the sky and the stars and placed himself between the sky and the earth to separate them. 

The Greek sphere of influence did not die with Alexander. In the first stage, it lived on as Hellenism from the Mediterranean to India after which Greek art and customs gradually fused and mixed with those of the newly formed kingdoms and civilizations. In Egypt, Hellenism officially ended with the death of Cleopatra when many concepts and ideas were continued by the Romans. The Parthian and Bactrian Kings did the same in the East. Greek remained the lingua franca in antiquity and helped to spread Christianity until the Islamic conquest in the 7^th century AD took over.

[Pictures from Franck Goddio's site]

Another pertinent theory about Alexander’s Tomb

All accounts on the whereabouts of Alexander’s Tomb agree up to and including Ptolemy X, who, in 89 BC used the King’s golden sarcophagus to wipe up his financial situation. He replaced the coffin with a translucent alabaster one. 

It has been documented that Cleopatra and several Roman emperors visited the tomb. Caligula and Caracalla did not shy away from taking some of Alexander’s regal attributes, nor did Aurelian and Diocletian in the 3^rd century AD. 

Alexander’s remains were saved from the disastrous tsunami that flooded the North African coast in 365 AD. They were moved to a safe location until the new Christian Emperor Theodosius decided that the cult of Alexander was a threat to his dogma. In the early 5^th century the tomb disappeared from the radar. 

Andrew Chugg in his book The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great links the disappearance of Alexander’s corpse to the first appearance of St Mark’s tomb when in 828 AD, the Saint was abducted by the Venetians. ‘San Marco’ was placed in a tomb in the crypt of the Basilica built for that purpose in 1094 – or was it Alexander? 

Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis has followed another track using Arab writings. He picked up the account of Hassan-Al-Wassan, also known by his Roman name Leonis Africanus, published in Venice in 1551. He stated having seen the body of Alexander in the crypt of a small chapel.

Another source is found in the 16th century’s description of Luis del Marmol de Carvajal, a Spanish geographer, trader, and historian also known as Claude Marmal. While in Alexandria, he actually saw the embalmed Alexander in his sarcophagus in a place close to the church of St. Mark.

The next witness is said to be George Sandys, a geographer and emissary who saw Alexander’s mummified body and sarcophagus in the same crypt in 1621. The tomb's guardians told him that in 954 Alexander was visible at the mosque Dûl-I-Qarnaïn-Nabi. In the Quran, to this day, Alexander is considered a prophet. From that mosque, Alexander was moved to another mosque and again to where Sandys saw him. 

[Picture from Anabasis, Source jeanclaudegolvin.com]

Alexander may well have a special god looking after him because, in the 18^th century, he was found safely hidden in underground tunnels in Alexandria. This seems to be the site where the French diplomat, Octave Borelli came to see the tomb in 1898. After a diplomatic meeting at the consulate, he was led to the basement where he allegedly caught a glimpse of some gold through a crack in the wall. This most certainly was not the gold of his sarcophagus since Ptolemy X had removed it. Somehow Borelli managed to dig deeper inside the basement where he recognized the body of Alexander the Great, his shield, and other artifacts and gifts (maybe this is the gold Borelli saw?) The tale sounds too good to be true! 

Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis’ account mentions that Borelli returned several times to sketch the tomb and take notes with the intention of bringing Alexander to France. Unfortunately, in 1911, before he could materialize his plans Borelli was murdered. He had not shared the location except with one close friend, whose descendant Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis met. Thanks to this descendant, he had all the pertaining information to locate Alexander’s tomb, which he did with the help of an archaeologist in 2020. 

Apparently, Alexander's sarcophagus had not moved from the consulate’s basement since the early 20^th century, but the consulate no longer exists. It has been replaced by a residential building whose owner refuses access or any excavation to be carried out. 

The above is widely based on an article Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis published in the Greek Reporter in November 2022. 

There may be some truth in this theory, but Alexander’s tomb always eludes us. That is the case for the tomb of St Mark in Venice which may hold the body of Alexander and where the church refuses to open the tomb to have it analyzed. It is again the case in this basement in Alexandria where the owner refuses entry. 

A previous claim was made ten years ago when the crypt of an early Christian church in Alexandria yielded a richly decorated mausoleum that was attributed to Alexander based on the inscription reading “King of Kings, and Conqueror of the World, Alexander III”. That story was never updated (see: New speculation about Alexander’s tomb). 

And let us not forget the ongoing excavation project in Alexandria’s Shalallat Gardens where a beautiful statue of Alexander was unearthed in 2017 (see: Magnificent Alexander statue found in Alexandria)

One may wonder what hidden reasons are keeping Alexander hidden over the centuries.

The multiculturalism of Alexandria

Earlier this month, Academia.edu shared an article by Rogério Sousa, Alexandrea ad Aegyptum: The legacy of Multiculturalism in Antiquity, together with a team of specialists in Art History, Archaeology, Literature, Mathematics, Egyptology, and Classical Studies. 

It is a nice complement to my blog Alexandria, first Renaissance, which I published just recently.

At the beginning of said book from 2012, a Chapter called FORWARD, deserves our dearest attention. It is written by Ismael Serageldin, Librarian of Alexandria. Who is better placed to describe Alexander’s role in creating a multicultural city that led “to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined.” I’m quoting this Chapter hereafter for everyone to enjoy: 

"The founding of Alexandria in 331 B.C.E. was a momentous event in the history of mankind. Alexander's dream was to create an international city, a space where people from all over the known world would live and work together for the development of the human mind. Alexandria therefore endures in our imagination as the first model of cultural interaction – of cosmopolitanism, to use both classical and contemporary terminology – and as the cultural and intellectual capital of the Ancient World. 

The intermingling of races and beliefs, and the exchange of ideas, undoubtedly produced the knowledge that modern scholarship still celebrates. For centuries Alexandria ruled the Mediterranean not just through its wealth and military power, but also with its intellectual achievements which came to fruition at the ancient Library of Alexandria. It was there that scholars gathered from the four corners of the world to push the boundaries of human knowledge and unleash the human mind on myriad quests. To this day it symbolizes the noblest aspirations of the human mind, global ecumenism, and the greatest achievements of the intellect. In Science, Mathematics, Astronomy and the humanities, the mark of Alexandrian scholarship and discoveries is to be found everywhere. 

The ancient Library of Alexandria was not just a repository of scrolls, valuable though those might have been. It was a centre of learning and of excellence, as we would today call it. It did not survive the turmoil of conflict and bigotry, or even the scars of time and natural disasters (for no physical remains exist), but its legacy lived on. Sixteen hundred years after its final collapse, the dream of its revival became a reality and it was resurrected, through international efforts, on the shores of the Mediterranean, just a stone's throw away from where its famed predecessor had stood. The new Library of Alexandria is a bold evocative building, but like its namesake, it is much more than a building and is not just a library. Born digital, it has risen to the challenges of the modern times and aspires to be a library for the new digital age. It is also, like the ancient Library, a centre of learning and dialogue, a space for intellectual debates (encouraging especially the youth), scholarship, and the arts, as well as a meeting place for North and South, East and West. Equipped with state-of-the-art technology and conference halls, it is a vast cultural complex with its own orchestra, museums, permanent as well as temporary exhibitions, research centres and publications. As it celebrates its tenth anniversary this October, the new Library of Alexandria can look back with pride upon the large strides it has taken towards promoting culture, dialogue and scholarship, reassuring its ancestor that ideas never die, and that though men may expire and buildings may perish, great minds are immortal. 

This conference, and its proceedings, are a testimony that the values embodied by Alexandria and its Library continue to inspire noble minded scholars whose pursuit for knowledge transcends boundaries and time. The breadth and scope of the papers presented do credit to the spirit of Alexandria – its multiculturalism, and its passion for science and scholarship. All this would not have been possible without the enlightened leadership of the first Ptolemies, who translated Alexander's dream in ways that may have exceeded his 10 alexandrea ad aegyptvm: the legacy of multiculturalism in antiquity expectations. The genius of the site, Alexander's choice, allowed the city to accumulate immense wealth through maritime trade, and this in turn allowed the Ptolemies to channel funds towards culture. It was they who laid the foundations of enlightenment, symbolized by the Pharos, the Museion and the Library. Under their aegis, scholarship and science – the product of foreign and local minds working together – made immense leaps in all areas. Callimachus, especially revered in the new Library of Alexandria, not only revolutionized poetry but also classified books according to author, title and subject, thereby establishing library science. Euclid's book continues to be taught to this day, a record that has yet to be broken! And Philo's early attempt at reconciling philosophy with religion set a tradition that also continues to engage philosophers and theologians. Indeed, Alexandria's importance in philosophy, Judaism and Christianity is a matter for deep scholarship, but this conference pays attention to the especial role Alexandria played in spreading the cult of Isis throughout the world, making her the most popular deity of ancient times. Cleopatra herself often assumed the role of Isis (thus providing a marvelous example of cultural interaction) during festivals and religious ceremonies. She was the last of the Ptolemies and the Hellenistic age came to an end with the asp bite that ended her life. Yet her magic, like that of the city which she ruled, lives on. The Hellenistic age may have officially ended with Octavian's victory, but it never died. 

The proceedings in our hands confirm that the multiculturalism of the Ancient World, rippling out from Alexandria to extend throughout the Hellenistic period and beyond, is as valid now as it was then – perhaps more so today, when globalization has given a new meaning to the internationalism envisioned by Alexander the Great centuries ago. Now, with the «clash of civilizations» dominating our discourse, it is pertinent to remember the lesson Alexandrea ad Aegyptum taught us: that the interaction between cultures can only lead to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined".

Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander

The massive circular tomb of Emperor Augustus in Rome has recently been opened to the public. This makes headline news to most people (including the Roman citizens) because the building was neglected and stood abandoned for the past 80 years. Finally, renovation works were completed, and the mausoleum has opened for visitors. 

The Mausoleum of the first Roman Emperor stands along the Tiber River just as the much better-known Castel Sant’Angelo, which initially was conceived as a mausoleum for the later Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD) and his family. 

Working on the Tomb of Augustus, archaeologists were in for some surprises. They always thought that this mausoleum was cone-shaped, but their restoration revealed a cylindrical building. That is not surprising if we look at Hadrian’s Mausoleum, which also stands along the Tiber and is cylindrical. 

As Octavian returned home after his victory over Egypt, he proclaimed himself emperor and took the name Augustus. This was the proper time to start the construction of his tomb. With his title of Emperor came the megalomania of having the largest mausoleum ever with a diameter of about 87 meters! It seems that even today, this is a world record. The idea was that the emperors coming after him would also be buried in this tomb. So the ashes of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were indeed interred in this necropolis. It must have made quite a statement with its shiny marble walls. Archaeologists suspect that an enormous statue of Augustus crowned the mausoleum. 

This type of construction was apparently not confined to Rome since other similar tombs existed in Algeria. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Tipaza may be the best-preserved example. It was built in 3 BC for King Juba II of Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, his wife. This queen was the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. She successfully ruled over Mauretania until she died in 6 BC. Her husband built this mausoleum for her, and based on its size, the idea probably was to also use it for future generations of royal families. King Juba died in 23 AD, and his remains joined those of his wife. 

The mausoleum appears not to be unique as the shape was known throughout Numidia. It may, however, also be inspired by Augustus’ tomb which was built some 25 years earlier. The circular stone construction with a diameter of 60 meters was initially topped with a cone or pyramid standing 40 meters tall. The walls were decorated around the outside perimeter with 60 Ionic columns, which have now lost their capitals. Inside there were two separate vaulted chambers. 

A recent article published on Academia by Michael Bengtsson, “Reconstruction of the Palace area in Alexandria,” sheds another light on the Mausoleum of Alexander, which was visited for centuries in Alexandria. The author has carefully reconstructed the Royal Palace of Alexandria, referring to the texts written by Zenobius, Strabo, Suetonius, and Lucan. 

Based on the striking resemblance between the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Algeria and the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Michael Bengtsson concluded that the tomb of Alexander served as a prototype for both. I think we may safely assume that the size of Alexander’s circular tomb must have surpassed all! 

In the case of the Algerian Mausoleum, we can be confident that Cleopatra Selene, born in Alexandria, thoroughly knew the Palace and the burial site of Alexander. As General Octavian, Augustus conquered Alexandria in 30 BC after winning the Battle of Actium against Marc Antony. He also visited the tomb of Alexander. And finally, Hadrian was in Alexandria in 130 BC. As a lover of all things Greek, he most certainly was full of admiration for Alexander and must have seen his tomb. He may well have been inspired to use the circular shape for his own Mausoleum.

Other Roman emperors who paid their respects to Alexander were Julius Caesar in 45 BC, Caligula, Septimius Severus early 3rd century AD, and Caracalla in the 3rd century AD. It is said that Septimius Severus closed Alexander’s tomb to the public when too many tourists flocked to see it! The crowds and tourists are of all times, it seems.

See also: Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

[Top picture from World History Encyclopedia - Second picture from Atlas Obscura - Bottom picture from Michael Bengtsson]

Taposiris Magna in Egypt

Taposiris Magna has been in the news lately because of the extensive archaeological diggings leading to the theory that this could be the place to find the Tomb of Cleopatra VII. This last Queen of Egypt (see: Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies) leaves as big a mystery around her ultimate resting place as her distant ancestor, Alexander the Great. Anyway, this riddle has not been solved as yet.

 

Taposiris Magna lies on Egypt's north coast, about halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, some 60 km from the center of Alexandria. Nowadays, it falls within the Alexandria Governorate of Egypt. It’s interesting to know that it was on the road to Paraetonium, which Alexander took when he visited Siwah. Callisthenes tells us that Alexander stopped in Taposiris Magna, so we should assume this was an earlier settlement.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Image Credit : Koantao - CC BY-SA 3.0]

It has been recorded that the city was built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the son, and successor of Ptolemy I, between 280 and 270 BC. It stood on top of a limestone ridge that separates the Mediterranean from the now-dry Lake Mareotis. In Roman times, a channel 50 meters wide was dug out simultaneously as a closed harbor system. To eliminate the silt carried by the Nile, these skilled builders ingeniously added two de-silting openings to the harbor basin. Besides some shops, cisterns, and several private and public buildings, the most significant remains are those of the Temple of Osiris and a lighthouse.

 

The name Taposiris Magna means “the great tomb of Osiris,” which clearly refers to the temple. The theory about the last resting place of Cleopatra VII matured after discovering a large necropolis outside the walls. It contains Greco-Roman mummies, which all face the temple. Hence the link to the presence of royalty within the walls of the temple and, hopefully, of Cleopatra.

 

Further excavations have located the original gate to the Temple of Osiris, including several stones that once lined the entrance. This may be an indication that there was an avenue bordered with sphinxes as customary at the time the Pharaohs ruled Egypt, i.e., until the arrival of Alexander.

 

The town is surrounded by a long wall that ran further south to the shore of the lake to ensure that the caravans would pass through the city. Until the 7th century AD, Taposiris Magna played a significant role in the trading route for the goods arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). This forced the merchants to pay taxes before traveling onward to Alexandria.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Pharos of Abusir – 

Image Credit : Einsamer Schütze – CC BY-SA 3.0]

The lighthouse, or the Pharos of Abusir, is a 1:4 or 1:5 replica of the famous Pharos of Alexandria. More recent and in-depth studies have concluded that this tower was never a lighthouse but a funerary monument from Ptolemaic times inspired by the Pharos - meaning it was built after the famous lighthouse of Alexandria.

 

Pending more excavations and perhaps luck, we might find where this remarkable Queen Cleopatra is buried.

Writing a letter home and the logistics implied

It sounds like the most obvious thing to do for a soldier, writing a letter home. But I find it quite remarkable that the Macedonian troops travelling with Alexander wrote letters to their family in their homeland because it implies that the average soldier could actually read and write! Maybe they didn’t all carry pen and ink in their backpack but papyrus or some kind of parchment – even though that seems to have been implemented only in the days of Cleopatra – was easy to take along.

The letters home are rarely mentioned in our literature but they become subject to close scrutiny when the Macedonians are divided after the plot and the execution of Philotas in 330 BC. Many were distressed by the murder of Parmenion, Philotas’ father. The army no longer stood unanimously behind the king’s decisions and policies. Alexander, however, could not let this group of discontent troops sow havoc in his ranks. He had to make sure to find the traitors and those who dared to criticize him. This was a serious matter and he decided to open and censor the army’s letters home. This was the only way for Alexander to locate the unruly elements. He removed the culprits from their own units and transferred them to a separate body, the ataktoi, a disciplinary unit that was specially created for the occasion. These men were sent on particularly dangerous or suicidal missions where they could and would redeem themselves – if they were not killed that is.

The courier service between the troops on the march and their homeland must have involved an incessant flow of riders and seafarers – not only for the common soldiers but also for official business that must have followed another channel.

The most frequent mail exchanges were undoubtedly Alexander’s official correspondences with his Regent, Antipater, and with foreign ambassadors and representatives. It was the task of his secretaries Eumenes of Cardia, who occupied that position previously under his father, and of Callisthenes of Olynthus, the nephew of Aristotle. There must have been an entire “office” of scribes of all kinds, including people who were familiar with the does of don’ts at foreign courts and a number of qualified translators and copyists to keep track of the documents.

Alexander certainly wrote his private letters to his mother Olympias personally for I doubt he would have entrusted these to anyone else. He may have employed a number of private and trustworthy couriers because the content of those documents was highly sensitive.

We are also aware of Hephaistion’s correspondence with Aristotle but it seems evident that he maintained a vivid correspondence with many scholars and high ranking officials spread all over the conquered territories and even beyond.

Also, the incoming mail had to be checked, sorted and distributed. The royal mail had priority and was opened, checked and sorted by the scribes in Alexander’s tent supervised, I assume by Eumenes who had to decide what had to be prioritized and what not.

The matter of correspondence, on whatever level, implies a huge logistic machinery of its own. It has been suggested that initially Parmenion was responsible for the army’s logistics, which may have included the mail services. However, once he was assigned as keeper of the immense Persian treasury in Ecbatana, we don’t know who replaced him to become the trusted brain behind those operations.

Climate change in antiquity and its economic consequences

Although political and social unrest during the 1^st century BC transpires from our recorded history, the underlying cause was not known. People understandably blamed the gods, the priests, and/or their leaders. In our 21^st century, we are able to pinpoint the true culprit, a rather unknown volcano in Alaska, the Okmok. 

Analyzes of the volcanic records in six separate cores taken from the Greenland ice cap have revealed two major volcanic eruptions that occurred approximately 8,300 and 2,050 years ago.  In-depth research enabled scientists to establish a more precise date in early 43 BC. As a result, the years 43 and 42 BC were among the coldest recorded in the last 2,500 years and started one of the coldest decades. The eruption led to colder seasonal temperatures in the Mediterranean region for at least two years.

[Timeline showing European summer temperatures and volcanic sulfur and ash levels in relation to the Okmok II Eruption and significant historic events of the Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom from 59 to 20 BCE [Credit: DRI]. From The Archaeology News Network]

Time-wise, this natural catastrophe coincided with significant historical events. Only one year before, Julius Caesar had been assassinated leaving the Roman Republic in utter turmoil. The state affairs somehow stabilized when Octavian proclaimed himself emperor of Rome in 27 BC. In the meantime, Cleopatra had been struggling to restore power in the Eastern Mediterranean. By 31 BC, she had to surrender to Octavian who took the title of Augustus Caesar as he founded the Roman Empire.

The problems Cleopatra had been facing were not only of political order. Egypt was suffering because the Nile failed to flood in 43 and 42 BC. Today we know that the eruption of the Okmok affected the Nile watershed. The scarce rain in some areas was not enough to replace the annual Nile River flood, causing food scarcity, famine, and disease. These facts have been confirmed by archaeological and written sources, but until now they were not linked to a volcanic eruption in the faraway Aleutian Islands. Further research has established that for at least two years, temperatures in certain Mediterranean regions fell nearly 7 degrees Centigrade below the normal average.

A local Egyptian governor left us an inscription dated about 39 BC, in which he describes his struggle to find food for the population as there had been no flooding of the Nile for several years. In this text, even the priests recognized this man to be a true savior of the people. Coming from them, clearly underscores the seriousness of the situation.

In the end, had Cleopatra and the Roman rulers known about the explosive eruption of that Alaskan volcano, there is nothing they could have done to avoid the famine and the chaos in their countries. With hindsight, however, we may – I think – be a little milder in judging their leadership. 

As recent as July 2008, the Okmok erupted again for five consecutive days reshaping the volcanic cone dramatically. Altogether, it remained active for a full month. However, I have not come across records of regional or widespread influences on the climate.

How modern is an antique ring?

At first sight, the image shows a gorgeous and very modern ring, a true designer’s piece, enough to raise anyone’s curiosity.

To my greatest surprise, I learned that it belonged to Emperor Caligula, who succeeded Tiberius in 37 BC. This means that the dazzling and breathtaking sapphire ring is almost two thousand years old! Knowing that sapphires are only a little less hard than diamonds, it is incredible that in Roman times craftsmen mastered the skill to cut and polish this stone. What’s more, they even were capable of carving the delicate portrait of a woman on the front of the ring.

Research has revealed that the portrait displays Caligula’s last wife, Caesonia, whose mind was as twisted at that of her husband. 

The ring came up for auction in 2019, together with other jewelry that belonged to the Marlborough Collection. This collection of 800 carved gemstones and cameos was amassed by the 4th Duke of Marlborough in the 18th century. Most jewelry dated from antiquity. By 1899 the gems were sold off, and many pieces ended up in private hands. Sadly, today’s experts only know the whereabouts of approximately one-quarter of the collection.

In this context, a portrait of Marc Antony also seems to have the same provenance. His image is carved in a Roman golden framed sard (a variety of chalcedony). His less bloody love affair with Cleopatra also went down in history.

[Pictures from My Modern Met]

Massive plundering of art in the early years of the Roman Empire

The plundering and looting of artwork have been ongoing for centuries, and it was not Emperor Augustus’ scoop. In a previous blog Wartime Looting in antiquity, I covered many ancient artifacts that changed owners over the centuries. This time I want to focus on Augustus’ contribution, among which are some treasures related to Alexander the Great.

Octavian's conquest of Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean clearly went to his head. He was now the most powerful man on earth for all to see and respect. To underscore his role, he proclaimed himself emperor taking the name of Augustus, which means majestic and venerable. Modesty was not his virtue.

The greatest treasures that fell in Octavian hands came from Alexandria, where the Ptolemies had amassed many artworks from the most famous Greek artists like Apelles, Alexander’s privileged painter, and Antiphilus, a contemporary of Apelles and maybe rival. However, he worked mainly for Philip II and for Ptolemy I. Egypt was an untouched trophy, and besides their Greek heritage, they had gathered spoils from Africa and collected other precious Orientalist Greek-Egyptian works of art, all to be added to their own centuries-old cultural heritage. Obviously, Octavian’s army helped themselves during what must have been quite a rampage after the downfall of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Upon their return to Rome, blinded by the wealth that poured into the city, everybody of name and fame wanted a piece of the pie and acquired what they could by all possible means: from honest purchases and authentic gifts to robbery, haggling, blackmail, or bribery.

Egypt was not the first victim, and we will remember that only a good one hundred years before, the Romans had helped themselves to the treasures of Macedonia in 168 BC when they won the decisive Battle of Pydna. Aemilius Paulus took the royal library of Macedonia with him, and Sulla followed suit in 86 BC, helping himself to Aristotle’s personal library in Athens. Marc Antony simply dispatched the 200,000 parchment rolls from the Library of Pergamon to Cleopatra in 43 BC as a wedding gift. Papyri and parchment rolls were no booty to show off with, but paintings, statues, and jewelry enabled you to brag. As kingdoms like Macedonia and Pergamon were subdued by Rome, they became treasure troves for art lovers and the nouveau riches.

Julius Caesar was already a great “collector,” and Octavian, as the new Emperor Augustus, would not stay behind. With the increase of its wealth, Rome developed further refinement. Several private connoisseurs are known by name, like L. Lucinius Luculius and Novius Vindex, who highly appreciated Greek bronze and marble statues made by Lysippos (he acquired a statuette of Heracles, which was previously owned by Alexander, Hannibal, and Sulla), Praxiteles, Phidias, Skopas, and Polycleitus, and the paintings by Apelles were among their prized objects.

Augustus “bought” a famous painting of Aphrodite by Apelles, a controversial transaction that officially enabled the citizens of Cos to pay their outstanding taxes, but some obscure blackmail is more likely. The painting was exhibited for the opening of the Temple of the deified Julius Caesar in the Forum Romanum in 29 BC. Despite the eulogy written by several Latin poets, it remains unclear whether this Aphrodite was painted in the nude, rising from the sea and wringing her hair, or if only her upper body was showing. Two more paintings by Apelles were put on public display on the Forum, probably because they featured Alexander the Great. They were “Castor and Pollux with Victory and Alexander the Great” and “The Figure of War with his Hands tied behind him following the Triumphal Chariot of Alexander.”

Everything tied to Alexander was a prime possession as Augustus was a great admirer of the world conqueror and visited his tomb while he was in Alexandria. So it seems that the bronze Nike statues that supported each corner of the canopy over Alexander’s funeral chariot, as described by Diodorus, found their way to Rome as two of them were placed in front of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the two others stood in front of the Regia. These Nike originally were covered with gold foil or gilt and not made of massive gold as often assumed, for that would have made the statues too heavy for the funeral chariot.

Another close relation to Alexander was found in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. According to Pliny the Elder, inside this temple stood a magnificent bronze chandelier “with the lights fixed like apples on a tree,” which had been taken by Alexander from Thebes in 335 BC (another earlier spoil of war!). Alexander had dedicated it as his votive offering after victory at the Battle of the Granicus.

The Alexandrian painter Antiphilus was another favorite artist of the Roman emperor. A group representing “Alexander with Philip and Athena” was placed in Rome’s Portico of Octavia with ”Noble Hesione.” In the nearby Portico of Philippi, three more works found a place: “Alexander portrayed in his early teens,” “Dionysus,” and the “Death of Hippolytos.”

Augustus’ greed was boundless, and he did not hesitate to confiscate the chryselephantine statue of Athena from Tegea made by a certain Endoios to place it on the Forum Augusti. At the time of his conquest of Egypt, he also seized the statue of Zeus made by Myron from Samos and moved it to Capitol Hill in Rome.

These are, of course, only a few examples, for it is impossible to know how many works of art Augustus brought to Rome and how many pieces from previous acquisitions changed hands in those days. Yet the quantities and mainly their quality were unheard of, and we must thank Pliny the Elder for documenting the works displayed in Rome’s many public buildings and porticoes. Pausanias also, during his extensive travels, highlighted the prized collection. Plutarch, in turn, had an eye for Cleopatra’s treasures, including precious metals, jewels, pearls, and ivory.

It is hard to imagine the wealth and luxury displayed in the heyday of Rome, for this is far beyond anything we can imagine. Opulence was the common good, the Romans ruled the world, and they showed it.

[The above is based on an article published by Academia.edu: Plundered art in the galleries of Augustan Rome, uploaded by Tomasz Polański. The pictures are mine.]