The Histories by Polybius, A new translation by Robin Waterfield

The Histories by Polybius (ISBN 978-0199534708) are far less known than, for instance, The Histories by Herodotus and cover an entirely different period. As a result, the author and his book merit being put in a well-deserved spotlight.

Few people ever heard of Polybius and it may be useful to introduce him with a short biography. Polybius was born ca. 200 BC, probably in Megalopolis, the capital of the Achaean League (a federal organization of the Peloponnesus). His father played a leading political role and Polybius at the age of thirty was elected deputy leader of the League. But his life changed dramatically when Macedonia lost its independence at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. This had far-reaching consequences for the rest of Greece. The Achaen leaders were deported to Rome, including Polybius, who spent seventeen years in the capital.

However, as a highly educated Greek, he soon befriended Scipio Aemilianus, one of the most powerful men in Rome at that time. He also became friends with Prince Demetrius held hostage in Rome and managed to arrange his escape from the city in 162 BC in order to reclaim his place on the Seleucid throne.

Polybius accompanied Scipio during his campaign in Spain and went to Numidia, modern Tunisia. He tells us how he walked in the footsteps of Hannibal from Spain to Italy. In 149 BC, he was summoned to Carthage where, using his diplomatic skills brought the Carthaginians to comply with the demands of Rome. Not for long though as two years later Polybius joined Scipio again in his siege of Carthage. When that city fell, he traveled beyond Gibraltar to explore the coast of western Africa. For reasons that could not be determined, Achaea revolted against Rome in 146 BC and lost the battle; as a result, the League was dismantled, and proud Corinth was destroyed. Polybius apparently played an important role in the reconstruction of Greece, a gesture that was widely appreciated as Pausanias tells us that many cities of the Peloponnesus erected statues in honor of their fellow countryman.

It is clear that Polybius led a very active life as a politician, general, and even as an explorer and it makes one wonder when and how he found the time to write. Besides his Histories, he left us a study on tactics, a treatise on the habitability of the equatorial region, about the war of Rome against Numantia in Spain, and a biography of Philopoemen, a famous and skilled strategos of Achaea. Unfortunately, the largest part of his works have not survived.

Polybius’ Histories treat the rise of the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean in the period from 220 to 146 BC – a colossal job filling forty books of which only five have survived. Books 1 and 2 are basically an introduction to his work leading to the battle for power between Rome and Carthage, which spills over into Book 3 with the victory of Hannibal in 216 BC. In Books 4 and 5, Polybius turns to the situation in Greece and the eastern Mediterranean before that same date in order to match the chronology in which he likes to report events. Of the following books, which are not necessarily straight history and treat for instance of geography in Book 34, substantial excerpts also exist. From what transpires, he took the trouble to make a summary of his work in Book 40. So much precious information has, unfortunately, been lost over the centuries!

In his effort to explain what kind of constitutional structure Rome applied to conquer the world, it appears that in Book 6 Polybius developed a highly interesting theory about the recurrent cycle of government in which monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy alternate. In the same book, he described the constitution of Rome at length giving us a unique insight into the great organizational skills of the Romans.

What makes Polybius stand out is his overall chronology reporting the events as they develop simultaneously in the eastern and western end of the Mediterranean. It truly is a rare horizontal history and, what’s more, he is the only historian from the Hellenistic period whose work survived to such an extent.

Since the Punic Wars are treated in detail, I found this the best history I ever read without getting lost or confused one way or another in those repeated conflicts that lasted on and off for 118 years. To keep track of time, the year in which the events took place is handily quoted in the margin.

The translation made by Robin Waterfield is superb and reads with the clarity that is characteristic of him (see: Dividing the Spoils).

The book has a great Introduction without which the Histories would be very hard to understand. It also includes a handy chronology of the events covered in the book and a set of three maps, one of the Mediterranean and a detailed one for both Greece and Italy.

Carthage Antique, des origines jusqu’à l’invasion Vandale (814 BC-439 AD) by Samir Aounallah

Clip and clear, one of the best historical overviews of Carthage is to be found in this booklet, Carthage Antique, des origines jusqu’à l’invasion Vandale (Antique Carthage from its origins to the invasion of the Vandals) (814 BC-439 AD) by Samir Aounallah (ISBN 978-9973-878526).

In a concise but very transparent way, the author walks us through Punic Carthage, telling us how it disappeared, followed by the birth of another Carthage as created by the Romans after having destroyed the city about a century before until it became the mighty Colonia Concordia Iulia Carthago.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC as a colony of Phoenician Tyre and the principal information comes from its cemeteries, the so-called tophets. Soon Carthage outshone Tyre to become a powerful nation in its own right that inevitably grew to be the envy of Rome. This led to what went down into history as The Punic Wars.

The First Punic War was fought from 264 to 241 BC mainly in and around Sicily. The Second Punic War that raged from 218 until 201 BC is probably best known for Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps. The decisive blow happened during the Third Punic War that lasted only three years (149-146 BC) and ended with the victory of the Romans. After the loss of hundreds and maybe thousands of soldiers on both sides, the almighty Romans thoroughly destroyed the city of Carthage.

Since the city sat on a strategic location, Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus decided in 44 BC that it should be rebuilt. So whatever poor remains were left from the Punic city were now buried underneath the new Roman metropolis, hence the complication for modern archaeologists to redefine the outlines of either city.

This booklet is an excellent attempt to sort out the widespread ruins. It contains plenty of photographs of the ruins as visible today but also many artifacts that have been moved to the Bardo Museum in Tunis and the Museum of Carthage on the spot. Several drawings, maps, reconstructive maquettes, and visualization pictures help to create a vivid image of what this grand city once looked like. Besides, many pages contain inserts in italics quoting texts from antique writers and other historical authors.

In short, it is an excellent tool for whoever wants to visit the remains of Carthage in modern Tunisia or for those interested in a solid historical overview.

Alexander crosses the Hindu Kush a second time

After two years of intense guerilla fights throughout Sogdiana, Alexander had finally caught Bessus, eliminated Spitamenes and restored a relative peace in Bactria by marrying Roxane. The time had come for him to head for India.

Until now, I was convinced that Alexander returned from Bactria via the Khyber Pass but when I tried to trace where the idea came from, I was in for a surprise. There is no excuse, I should have taken a closer look at the map to realize that the Khyber Pass lies in fact on the way from Kabul to Peshawar and not between Bactria and Afghanistan.

With that question solved, I needed to find out which pass Alexander had used leaving Bactria. The antique authors are disappointingly scant in reporting this part of his campaign. Plutarch, Justin, and Diodorus do not mention the crossing of the Hindu Kush – a formidable barrier under all circumstances - on Alexander’s return and Curtius simply states that Alexander set out for India in order not to foster idleness. Arrian seems to be the only one to be more specific telling us that by the end of spring Alexander began his march for India, that he crossed the Indian Caucasus, and ten days later reached Alexandria(-in-the-Caucasus), the city he had founded during his first expedition into Bactria. Strabo merely tells us that Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and settled his veterans and mercenaries together with natives at Alexandria-in-the Caucasus.

This meant that I had to rely on modern historians and their research on the matter. Unfortunately, they do not agree among themselves about Alexander’s route and it seems that they all have a theory of their own.

Frank Holt (Into the Land of Bones) has come to the conclusion that Alexander marched his army over the Shibar Pass. With the winter snows gone, the trek went smoothly and without great logistical problems.

Robin Lane Fox (Alexander the Great) says that Alexander used the same pass as earlier, meaning the Khawak Pass (see: From Afghanistan into Bactria across the Hindu Kush). This time in June, the march was at a leisurely pace and took only ten days. The snows had melted and Alexander could rely on food stored in the Sogdian fortresses on the way and on the high grazing grounds for the animals. The army spent a pleasant summer at Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus (Begram) thus avoiding an invasion of India in appalling heat.

A.B. Bosworth (Conquest and Empire) simply mentions that Alexander crossed the passes of the Hindu Kush into the Paropamisadae in ten days and reinforced the city of Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus.

Michael Wood has concluded that Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush via Bamyan, which implies that he took the Shibar Pass.

Donald Engels (Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army) in turn sticks to the Salang Pass since this pass is shorter and has often been used by armies in a hurry. Engels states that the army re-crossed the Hindu Kush in late spring but could not forage for grain along the route because harvest at these high altitudes does not occur until July or August. They had to rely on supplies collected by Hephaistion throughout Bactra before departing.

In a footnote, the author refers to the optional Kushan Pass, just east of the Salang Pass, that has been put forward by other historians, but then this Kushan is seldom used because it is precipitous and treacherous – not exactly recommendable for an army. The Salang Pass, on the other hand, although as fast as the Kushan is much safer. He rules out the Shibar Pass which is longer than the Khawak. Given the ten days it took Alexander to cross the Hindu Kush, Engels’ choice is narrowed down to either the Salang Pass or the Kushan Pass.

All these theories take me back to the map of Afghanistan and of the Hindu Kush in particular. Based on the above, it comes down to choosing between the 3,878 meter-high Salang Pass and the Kushan Pass rising at 4,370 meters located due west of the Salang Pass. Interestingly, this pass is less than one kilometer away from the modern Salang Tunnel built in 1964 with the financial and technological support of the Soviet Union. This meant that traveling time is cut down drastically although repeated avalanches tend to trap the vehicles inside the tunnel, making the voyage still a dangerous one.

Glancing at Google maps provides another quite impressive image of the landscape the Macedonian army crossed. Even with enough food and fodder, we have to admire these sturdy men trudging over narrow paths, through deep ravines, across icy rivers and over rocks of all sizes and shapes. Nobody, not even Hannibal comes close to Alexander’s exploits in the Hindu Kush. In the end, I have to agree with David Engels and agree on the Salang Pass.

We should remember that Alexander’s Asian campaign is much and much more than a series of battles and sieges. Marching often through forbidding landscapes, coping with extreme heat, thunderstorms, crosswinds, dust, rain, sleet and ice, the Macedonians have seen it all but the king set the example by leading his troops over each and every obstacle. The Hindu Kush is just one of these obstacles, although a major one that cannot be stressed enough.

[First picture shows the Shibar Pass by František Řiháček -original prints, CC BY-SA 3.0, - The two other pictures show the Salang Pass by Scott L.Sorensen - My Personal Picture, CC BY 3.0 and by Spc. Michael Vanpool (U.S. Armed Forces) respectively.]

Selinunte died tragically not unlike Pompeii

It is common knowledge that Pompeii was razed from the earth's surface following the volcanic eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. Still, the sudden end of Selinunte in Sicily is no less spectacular, yet unknown till now.

Selinunte initially was allied with Carthage, but after the battle of Himera (see: The Battle of Himera, a significant confrontation) in 480 BC, they sought the protection of Syracuse. Yet the situation in Sicily was never stable, and like Selinunte, other cities kept changing sides, at times with the Carthaginians and against them. One such case developed in the late 5^th century BC. After a nine-day siege, Hannibal utterly destroyed Selinunte, slaughtering 16,000 inhabitants and soldiers and enslaving the 5,000 male survivors and thousands of women and children. From one day to the next, the thriving city was entirely deserted.

Recent excavations have shed some light on Selinunte's sudden disappearance. Archaeologists have found half-eaten remains of meals abandoned by the people, as bowls with food residues were unearthed. Besides, they discovered dozens of unfired ceramic tiles and pots abandoned by the terrified workers before they could put them in the kilns. Whereas the city of Pompeii disappeared nearly overnight under a thick layer of volcanic ash, Selinunte was gradually covered beneath a thick coat of dust and earth.

Thanks to the wonders of modern geophysical techniques, it was possible to investigate the terrain. So far, 2,500 of Selinunte's houses have been identified, lining up alongside its streets, around its harbor, and even inside its busy industrial zone. What's more, we are able, for the first time, to have a detailed, comprehensive plan of a Greek city from the classical era, where until now, we only had scant and fragmentary impressions. Thanks to this study, scholars have counted the number of houses in the city, which has led to determining its population. Since even the industrial zone has been preserved, deciding on its interaction with the residential area is now possible.

So far, fewer than eighty kilns have been located, including huge ones with thousands of roof tiles and large ceramic amphorae. Another dozen kilns were dedicated to producing giant ceramic food vessels and ceramic coffins. The smaller kilns were used to make smaller pieces like tableware, loom weights, and statuettes of the gods. Among some of the pottery-making tools, traces of paint were also identified. It has been established that the potters had a place of worship for their own gods like Athena, who protected the workers, Artemis, who assisted in childbirth, Demeter as the goddess of fertility and harvest, and even mighty Zeus.

It is hard to imagine the hustle and bustle of Selinunte's harbor and industrial zone. Special attention will now be turned toward exposing the foundations of the large warehouses that once stood there. Excavations of the shops and the houses around the agora revealed that ships and goods from all over the Mediterranean moored here. So far, pottery, glass, and bronze ware from Egypt, Turkey, southern France, and northern Italy have been found. For instance, Selinunte's production in 409 BC is estimated to have reached 300,000 ceramic artifacts annually. It has been calculated that the citizens used less than 20% of these vessels. The remainder was destined to ship their rich harvests of agricultural produce, like wheat and olives.

In my earlier blog about Selinunte (see: More temples in Sicily to be proud of), I only spoke about the temples, which, since they had not been closely identified, were simply referred to by a letter. These temples were mainly disturbed by successive earthquakes or partially plundered as their building stones were reused for other structures over the centuries. There was indeed a lot of rubble lying around, although a first effort was made to clear the layout of the city and its main street, now revealing several shops (in 2014).

Basically, 15% of the city surface is being exposed, i.e., primarily temples and Selinunte's acropolis. All the rest is still hidden from view. Selinunte has become Europe's most important archaeological park despite this meager percentage!  

Was Hannibal superior to Alexander? No way!

There really is no way to compare Alexander and Hannibal, I know, but I lately watched a program about the exploits of Hannibal crossing the Alps with his elephants, in which it was mentioned that Hannibal achieved the greatest exploit ever by crossing the Alps. Is that so? How about Alexander crossing the Hindu Kush? This was simply too much for me and I went in search of some facts and figures to defend the case of Alexander.

I will not deny that Hannibal leading his army and most of all his elephants over the Alps in 218 BC (at the beginning of the Second Punic War with Rome) was a quite unique and daring undertaking, but there is no way this achievement could match or surpass Alexander’s march across the Hindu Kush roughly some one hundred years earlier.

The figures recorded by Polybius reveal that Hannibal traveled with 40,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and 37 elephants. Alexander on the other hand, having left Macedonia with 40,000 soldiers and 1,500 cavalry, lead an army of 100,000 men, an unknown number of cavalry and horses, and no elephants over the unforgiving heights of the Hindu Kush.

On top of that, there is no way to compare the Alps with the Hindu Kush. Once again I let the figures speak for themselves. The highest top of the Alps is Mont Blanc reaching 4,810 meters, while the highest summit of the Hindu Kush lies at 7,690 meters. Consequently, the passes over the respective mountain ranges are situated at quite different altitudes as well. Scholars have argued at length about the most probable route Hannibal could have followed. Based on the reports from Polybius and Livy, it is generally agreed that the lowest pass, the Col de Montgenèvre between Briançon in France and Susa in Italy was the most probable choice, located at 1,854 meters. Alexander on the other hand used the Khawak Pass at 3,848 meters in 329 BC when he moved his huge army from the Kabul Valley in Afghanistan to Bactria in the north. Two years later he crossed the Hindu Kush in the opposite direction to enter Pakistan, using the easier yet more famous Khyber Pass situated at 1,070 meters.

Of course, crossing the Alps by itself was an exploit and the Romans themselves felt they were a solid natural barrier. Crossing them with elephants was absolute madness (Hannibal was probably driven by his deep hatred for the Romans) and in the end it seems that only two dozen of them survived the expedition. Yet, that by itself is not enough, in my eyes, to place him above Alexander! His march is a heroic one in its own right, generally not stressed enough as it is very hard for us in the West to imagine what the overall travel conditions through the Hindu Kush range and passes and what its challenges are. Alexander’s men suffered dearly, especially in 329 BC as winter lingered on much longer than usual and the troops were often caught in blizzards where men and beasts froze to death if they dared stop moving. 

More often than not Alexander is forgotten in our western history while he opened up much of Asia. For ten years, his amazing campaigns lead him all the way to India across unforgiving deserts, wide and fast-flowing rivers, and daring mountain ranges of which the Hindu Kush definitely is the highest. The story of Hannibal’s elephants or the conquests of Julius Caesar in France, Germany, and Britain are much more familiar to us than Alexander’s challenging and daring march through Asia. That is not fair!

[Pictures from Wikipedia]