The city of Alexandria Troas or Alexandria of the Troad

The name of Alexandria Troas has a most confusing name since it is generally thought that the city was founded by Alexander the Great, more so because of the king’s admiration for The Iliad in which Troy played such an important role. Nothing is further remote from the truth. 

[Votif relief of Psyche on a dromedary from Alexandria Troas, 

2nd century BC, Louvre Museum]

According to Strabo the town of Sigeia was founded on this spot around 306 BC by Antigonus-Monophthalmus. The name of Alexandria Troas was given to the city by Lysimachos in 301 BC, as a generous referral to Alexander. It was a double harbor in northwestern Asia Minor and the richest of the Troad and occupied a strategic position near the entrance of the Hellespont. It silted up over the centuries. 

In 188 BC, the Romans declared it a free and autonomous city that counted about 100,000 inhabitants. Emperor Augustus settled a colony of soldiers within its walls and renamed it Colonnia Alexandria Augusta Troas, in short Troas. He lavishly embellished the city, as did the emperors Trajan and Hadrian a century later. 

Herodus Atticus, best known for his theater at the foot of the Acropolis in Athens, was appointed by Hadrian as prefect of the free cities of Asia in 125 AD, including Alexandria Troas. He may have built the aqueduct that carried water from Mount Ida, although other sources attribute the construction to Trajan. 

Alexandria Troas was surrounded by a 10-kilometer-long city wall, including fortified towers placed at regular intervals. Some parts are still visible today together with remains of the Roman Baths and the Gymnasium, a Necropolis, a Nymphaeum, the Odeon, the Theater, and a recently discovered Stadium dating approximately from 100 BC. 

The Baths and the Gymnasium were built by Herodus Atticus in 135 AD. They were surrounded by vaulted corridors with marble walls and water was delivered thanks to the aqueducts on the northeast side of town. The large Baths measured an impressive 123 x 84 meters. Most of the building remained intact until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake in the winter of 1809-1810. The whole project was greatly supported by Emperor Hadrian as revealed in an inscription found in Hadrian’s Gymnasium in Athens mentioning the emperor as the sponsor of the city in 132 AD. Three more inscriptions unearthed at Alexandria Troas during excavations in 2006 confirm the emperor’s interest and the appreciation of the citizens. 

The Hellenistic theater stood at the highest point of the city treating the spectators to a sweeping view over the city and the Aegean Sea with the island Bozcaada.

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 3

In this last part of the Periplus, Arrian takes us from Dioscuras/Sebastopolis to Byzantium. 

He starts his story where he left off at the conclusion of part 1, i.e., in Sebastopolis (see: Tour of Colchis: From Trapezus to Sebastopolis). This section, the Cimmerian Bosporus, was not controlled directly by Rome but by a so-called client king. In Hadrian’s day, that was Cotys II, in full Tiberius Julius Cotys, who ruled from 123/4 AD until he died in 131/2 AD. His appointment was made for life and his successor needed to be officially recognized by Rome. 

At the news of his death, Arrian decided that Hadrian would be interested in having the latest information about the Bosporan Kingdom since it supplied a great deal of wheat, clothing, wine, and slaves. His territory also was an important buffer zone with the warlike Alans living to the north. 

Arrian sailed along the mountainous coastline below the Caucasus to Pityus, some 65 kilometers away. These lands were occupied by the Zilchi ruled by a certain Stachemphax, also recognized as a king by Hadrian. Follows a list of cities, harbors, and rivers including the distances between them, from Crimea to the mouth of the Danube River. More familiar are the Greek cities on the south coast of Crimea, such as Panticapaeum (Kerch), Theodosia, Cercinitis, and Chersonesus (Kherson). Panticapaeum which lies only 11 kilometers from the Tanais River (modern Don River) and flows into Maeotis Lake (Sea of Azov) was seen as the place where Europe ended and Asia started. 

Sailing further west, Arrian stops at the Greek city of Olbia at the mouth of today’s Dnieper River. Next, he heads for the harbor of Odessos, a trading post founded by the Greeks from Istria. From here, he continues to the wide delta of the Ister River (Danube) where he reaches the Island of Achilles or Leuke (possibly Snake Island in Ukraine). Legend has it that Thetis gave it to her son. The island was known for its Temple of Achilles which held a wooden statue of the hero, as well as Greek and Latin inscriptions in honor of Achilles and his dear Patroclus. Arrian speaks of many offerings that were made, including sacrifices of animals. Those who sail by the island may “see” Achilles in their dreams or hallucinations. 

Proceeding further down the coast of the Black Sea, Arrian arrives at Tomis, a colony founded by the Greeks where Emperor Augustus banished the poet Ovid. The next port was Callatis, established by the Carians, followed by Odessos (another harbor by that name) where he entered Thracia. 

Passing the eastern end of the Haemus Mountains (in central Bulgaria), Arrian reaches Miletus’ colony of Apollonia which once held a colossal statue of the god Apollo. From here, he sailed to the not-so-good harbor of Salmydessus (roughly 150 km east of Hadrianopolis, modern Edirne) where Xenophon helped Seuthes II to become King of Thracia. 

By now, Arrian has landed at the Thracian side of the Bosporus. This area is reputed for the Cyanean Islands or Symplegades (also Clashing Rocks), a pair of rocks that clash together when a ship sails through. In Greek mythology, the rocks were defeated by Jason on his way to Colchis on board his ship, the Argo. 

Byzantium is Arrian’s final destination. He concludes by mentioning the local Temple of Zeus Ourios (who grants favorable winds) where Jason and the Argonauts erected an altar to the Twelve Olympian Gods on their return from Colchis. 

In our modern days of traveling by plane and high-speed trains, it is hard to imagine the pace in antiquity when people and armies moved on foot. Ships and barges were a comfortable alternative although winds and currents were not always reliable. Travelers could never predict the duration of a trip or the time of arrival, but in those days time was not so much of the essence as it is today. 

Though Arrian wrote his Periplus 130-131 AD, we don’t know how many months or weeks he actually was at sea. Considering that the circumference of the Black Sea is over 4,000 kilometers, it may be safe to speculate he spent most of those two years “on the road”. Quite an achievement!

[For the locations, please consult this map]

Museum of Tripoli, Libya

There are several reasons to write about the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli. It is one of those ‘must-see’ places that sadly are off the beaten track for the average tourist, especially since Gaddafi has been eliminated and the country has not regained its stability. 

I was privileged to visit this wonderful collection just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring, unaware of the quantity and high quality of artwork that awaited me. It must be said that I discovered these treasures on my first day in Libya, and, as always, I should have returned after my tour of the archaeological sites as well. 

Anyway, I took in as much as I could fully aware that the best pieces from any excavation made their way to the museum in the country’s capital. Tripoli was no exception. 

The bulk of the collection comes from Leptis Magna, second to Rome (see: An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya). 

The first statues I see are two magnificent Roman copies of Praxiteles’ originals from the 4th century BC. One is the Diadumenos, a young athlete who is tying the ribbon of victory around his head. The other is Apollo-Antinous hinting at Dionysus, combining the body of Apollo with the head of Antinous, the lover of Emperor Hadrian. Both life-size marbles were recovered from the Baths of Hadrian in Leptis Magna. The arched vaults of these baths from the 2nd century AD, have simply collapsed burying and saving its precious statues in the process. 

Stealing the show is the marble Apollo playing the lyre. He is a little taller than life-size and as true to life as imaginable. Apollo’s delicate hands and fingers seem to strike the strings as he holds his instrument with his left hand and the plectrum in his right. The lyre is intact, except for the strings, and it is a unique opportunity to have a close-up look. His eyes, whose traces of paint make them alive, stare melancholically into the distance. They are a vivid reminder of all the painted statues in antiquity. Apollo’s body is truly worthy of a god. 

The elegant Muse Calliope is sitting nearby listening carefully to his tune. More remarkable statues gather around Apollo. An unspecified sea goddess is looking up to him and Mars is standing in a niche behind him. The slender Isis is wearing a diadem, and Venus is very similar to other copies of the famous Aphrodite of Cnidos (see: Was Alexander the Great aware of Cnidos?). Hadrian definitely had an outspoken taste for beauty! 

Another large group of statues and busts is brought together from the theater of Leptis Magna, consisting mainly of Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, etc. Even Augustus' wife Livia, and granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder are present. Upstairs, in the Mezzanine there is a statue of Faustina, the wife of Marcus Aurelius. 

Inside the theater of Leptis Magna stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres-Augusta, goddess of the harvest – our word for cereal derivates from the name Ceres. A seated statue of this goddess also found its way to the museum. 

The goddess Cybele with the many breasts (or whatever they represent) as worshiped in Ephesos was unearthed in the sanctuary of the amphitheater. A Roman copy of a Greek original Diana/ Artemis, as displayed at the Louvre in Paris and the Archaeological Museum of Antalya is also exhibited. 

The Ancient Forum of Leptis Magna yielded a rather damaged Dionysus with satyr and panther, and a headless Lady Fortuna wearing a beautifully draped tunic. 

The museum’s impressive main hall also displays four delicate mosaics from a private villa in Leptis Magna. It dates from the 2nd century AD and depicts scenes of daily life in and around the Nile – hence its name, Villa of the Nile. 

Upstairs, a special room holds the original reliefs of the Arch of Septimius Severus (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus), proof of the political loyalty of the inhabitants of Leptis Magna in the 3rd century. The relief of Septimius Severus standing between his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, was meant to express the good harmony inside the imperial family. Here is also a statue of Caracalla as a child. 

The Cyrene Room has a wooden scale model of the Agora, which, unfortunately, is meaningless unless one has visited the site. Nearby are faceless goddesses believed to represent Persephone from the necropolis of Cyrene. Also, a rare Minerva wearing the Aegis tied to her waist as opposed to her Greek version, Athena, who wears it around her shoulders. She also holds her owl and carries the spear and shield. The statue is carefully carved in pure Greek tradition. 

The Archaeological Museum of Tripoli has a rich collection of mosaics from the 2nd century AD. Many villas were built along the Mediterranean coast by wealthy landowners who loved to show off. One such example is the Roman Villa of Zliten, some 200 km east of Tripoli. It yielded a large floor mosaic executed in a wonderful combination of opus sectile and clearly outlined opus vermiculatum. The central panel is filled with different sorts of fish, and the border with less peaceful scenes of gladiator fights. From the same villa comes the floor mosaic representing the Four Seasons. Tajura is located closer to Tripoli where another Roman villa from the 2nd century AD has been spotted. A large mosaic with geometric figures and the head of the sea god, Amfitritus, in its center has been removed from the Villa of the Nereids. 

Unfortunately, I did not visit any of these villas since they were usually closed to preserve them. Under the present chaotic regime, I wonder how much of these precious villas have survived the revolt and looting in the wake of Gaddafi’s execution. 

From Ghirza, a Roman fortress near Misrata, an entire Mausoleum from the 4th century AD has been moved to the entrance hall of the museum. It has a strange mixture of different styles that can hardly be defined. 

It is, of course, preferable to leave such constructions and the precious statues and mosaics in situ, but in case of political unrest and war, the artifacts are generally better protected inside the walls of a museum. It so happens that the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli is housed inside the so-called Red Castle of Tripoli. In 2011, following the outbreak of the Libyan Civil War, the museum was closed, but rebels managed to break into the museum and steal a few of Gaddafi’s belongings that were kept in a special room. Previously, the most valuable artifacts had been moved to a safer location. As of 2020, the museum is still closed.

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II

(continued from Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I)

At the end of Leptis Magna's Market, the Cardo continues through a rectangular Byzantine city gate to reach the Old Forum resting on Punic remains. 

This Old Forum automatically triggers visions of what may have been visible in Rome! The square is surrounded on all sides by temples, one for every god that matters, it seems. Immediately to the left is a temple that was converted into a church. Clockwise, followed by a portico and altar to Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Liber Pater, the Temple of Augustus and Rome, the Temple of Hercules, and a stele to Caius, son of Hanno. To the right are the Curia and an Old Basilica, in front of which is a small temple to the goddess Cybele. In the middle of this carefully paved Forum is a Baptistery. 

The sand-covered street behind the Old Forum is an invitation to climb to the dune top, where the beautiful deep blue Mediterranean shines as it has done over the centuries. All is calm! 

Today, the Wadi Lebda is only a small river or a dry river bed, but in its heyday, it was Leptis Magna's harbor, complete with quays and jetties. We can still see the holes into which poles were inserted and used by the ships to tie their anchor ropes. This port was short-lived. The river had been very skillfully diverted, and several dams were built upstream to prevent the sand would silt up the harbor. However, the harbor mouth was oriented in such a way that the undercurrent from the sea drew the sand in, and the harbor silted up anyway. Surprisingly, great master builders like the Romans could make such a mistake! 

Yet, this port appears as if it could be used again once the harbor is filled with water! The quay follows the river's course with a curvature towards the sea. There are also downward steps at regular intervals to enable the loading and unloading of the ships. At the head of the peninsula stood a lighthouse. 

In the days of Septimius Severus, an impressive colonnaded street, 420 meters long, ran parallel to the Wadi Lebda from the city center down to Leptis Magna's harbor. 

This Via Colonnata was 40 meters wide and paved with white marble slabs. It was flanked on both sides by a ten-meter-wide portico, reducing the central avenue to 20 meters. The Stoas were supported by 125 grey-green cipollino columns resting on a white marble base and crowned with white marble Pergamese capitals. The red-tiled roofs provided shade in summer and protected the citizens from the rain in winter. It must have been a sight for sore eyes! 

What remains today is a non-inspiring dirt road with bits of columns and carved stones. But the side street provides a helpful visual tool as half a dozen similar cipollino columns still stand tall. 

Behind these columns rises the high outside wall of the Severan Basilica, built by Septimius Severus and completed by his son, Caracalla, in 216 AD. This two-story monument measures 92x40 meters. The hall is crowded with two rows of two-story monolithic columns made of red Aswan granite set on white marble bases and carrying white marble Corinthian capitals. 

Like all Basilicas, this was originally a court of law converted into a church in Byzantine times. Quite unique in the present case is an apse at each end. Both apses are framed by white marble pilasters and half-columns decorated with high reliefs of plants and animals. On the north side are carved figures of Dionysus with satyrs and Maenads, whereas the south side shows the Twelve Labors of Hercules. On a sunny day, the depth of the skilled artwork really shows. In the middle of the apses are two substantial red granite columns with white marble Corinthian capitals topped with griffons that supported the roof. Like all other buildings in Leptis Magna, the walls were constructed using local limestone that was readily available. The roof would be made of wood. There may well have been windows underneath that roof to let the daylight in. At the center of the Basilica, there is also a kind of pulpit that is only partly visible. In an adjacent room on the south side of the Basilica, the Byzantines built a cruciform Baptistery. 

This Basilica is another illustration of the glory of Rome, considering its size, the use of precious marble and granite, and the craftsmanship of the details, of which there are many. 

The Basilica's west side corresponds to the Imperial Forum's short side, the Forum Novum Severianum, a gigantic square of 60x100 meters. The high walls of the surrounding buildings accentuate the size. Originally, a portico ran around the Forum, supported by Pergamese columns as found on the Via Colonnata. They are only visible on the Basilica side, where part of the portico is occupied by a row of shops. 

The beauty of this Imperial Forum may be found among the arches that span the top space between the columns. The area above each column and between the arches is filled with roundels depicting reliefs of the head of Medusa or a Nereid. A row of arches has been reconstructed on the left (long) side of the Forum, resting on Pergamese capitals. In total, at least 73 of these large medallions have been found. All Medusa heads are different and look at you from deeply furrowed eyebrows. A Nereid head is clearly placed at the end of the row. 

Opposite the Basilica on this same Forum stood the Temple of the Gens Septimia, dedicated to the worship of the Septimius family. It is said to have been built following the typical Roman pattern, high on top of a podium, and decorated with columns of red Aswan granite. No wonder this Forum is meant to be a replica of Trajan's in Rome. Septimius Severus' message was clear: his native city could not be inferior to Rome! 

I arrive at the other end of the Via Colonnata, in a vast oval square originally surrounded by the 72 columns of the Stoa. Overlooking this space stood a Nymphaeum several levels high. The back wall was entirely covered with marble, and the many niches were decorated with the most graceful statues. In and around the fountain stood many columns and other marble artifacts. The large water basin that ran alongside the street had several fountains. The scant remains still testify to the monumentality of this construction. 

Opposite the Nymphaeum is the empty space of an unpaved Gymnasium. The adjacent Baths of Hadrian skillfully fill the area towards the Wadi Lebda and the Nymphaeum. 

Those who have seen the Baths of Caracalla in Rome will recognize the sense of grandeur, although the remains of these thick walls are less telling. The bathing areas themselves, however, are better preserved: the Frigidarium, Tepidarium, and Caldarium, all carefully lined with white marble. Unique are the two Sudatoria connected to the Caldarium. This was a kind of sauna where pipes distributed the heat along the walls and under the floor. The complex also had two pools with adjoining latrines, and the pavement consisted of large white marble tiles. 

Unlike Roman constructions elsewhere made with bricks, the local limestone of Leptis Magna was also used for these Baths. Another striking feature is the porches on either side of the Tepidarium, where the sloping walls ensured more efficient air circulation and ventilation. Most statues from these Baths have been moved to the Museum in Tripoli – worth a visit of its own! 

[Read more at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion]

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I

Much of Roman Leptis Magna is still standing, disclosing monuments such as the Theater, the Market and Forum, the Nymphaeums, Baths, Temples, Arches, and Basilicas. Outside the Byzantine city walls are the large Amphitheater and the Circus. Living quarters are hardly noticeable as they generally remain hidden under the sand. 

The entrance to the site of Leptis Magna is only revealed once we reach the steps leading down to the Roman street level. Here stands the imposing Arch of Septimius Severus, a quadrifrons, an arch with four equal sides. Each side straddles the intersection of the roads, the north-south Cardo leading to the Old Forum and the Decumanus Maximus connecting Carthage to Alexandria. 

Although the Italian archaeologists did their best shifting through the many broken pieces, this reconstructed arch from 202 AD looks different from what one would expect. For instance, the eight peculiar pointed triangles on top of the Corinthian columns are totally out of place. The original marble reliefs in honor of Septimius Severus and his family are copies of the originals at the Leptis Magna and Tripoli museums. It is one of the strangest contraptions I've ever seen! This quadrifrons was clearly meant to impress as it stood on a pedestal three steps above the Roman street level. It is believed to be the work of craftsmen from Asia Minor. 

From here onward, the Cardo is lined with undefined buildings till it reaches two honorary arches. One to Emperor Tiberius and the other one to Emperor Trajan. This last one was erected in 109 AD to celebrate his granting the city the status of colonia. 

Next to Trajan's Arch is a large rectangular building, the Chalcidicum. It is surrounded by a portico and flanked on either side by a Nymphaeum. Between them, a series of wide steps leads to a podium crowned with four Corinthian columns. The wall behind these columns is covered with an inscription where the word Chalcidicum appears. The name may refer to the trade of metals or the building's bronze doors. An outer colonnade surrounds this Chalcidicum, erected by a local dignitary during the reign of Augustus in 11-12 AD. 

At this point, my attention is drawn to the many columns standing high on top of a circular wall at the back of the Theater. This Theater is the calling card of Leptis Magna, as it appears in every travel brochure. It is awe-inspiring, with a diameter of 70 meters and its slow-rising rows of seats to accommodate 10,000 visitors. The columns above the seating area have been partially restored to illustrate the connection point of the covered portico that covered the Theater. At its center stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres, a typical Roman concept to bring play and religion together. It yielded a statue of Tyche (Fortuna), which is now at the Museum of Tripoli. 

Of particular interest is the bilingual inscription in Latin and Punic carved on the lintel above the side entrances below the stage. It tells us that this Theater was built during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and donated by a wealthy citizen, Annobal Rufus. The Latin text mentions that he was the son of Himilchon and held the position of Consul Suffectus (the consul who completed the term of a deceased consul) and of flamen (priest devoted to the worship of a single god, meaning that he came from a patrician family).

Imp Ceasare Divi f(filio) Aug(usto) pont(ifice) max(imo) tr(ibunicia) pot(estate) XXIV co(n)s(ule) XIII patre pat(riae) Annobl Rufus ornator patriae amator concordiae / flamen sufes praef(ectus) scr(orum) Himilchonis Tapapi f(ilius) d(e) s(ua) p(ecunia) coer(avit) idemq(ue) Dedicavit

Interestingly, the imperial figure of Augustus was left out of the Punic text! 

The Dioscuri and Castor and Pollux statues once stood on either side of the stage. The marble balustrades were decorated with the heads of Heracles and Liber Pater (god of fertility and wine, later identified with Dionysus). Altogether, 133 statues have been retrieved and moved to the Museums of Tripoli and Leptis Magna. The many statues and decorations are indisputable and could rival only Rome. 

Immediately behind the podium of the Theater is a strange trapezoidal square, the Porticus post scaenam, delimited by tall gray granite columns. It surrounds the Sanctuary of the Divine Emperors or Dei Augusti, a shrine to the emperors, who were considered gods after their death. The Monument to the Severans has been added as an extension. 

Unlike the Romans, today's visitors to the Theater can thoroughly appreciate the contrast of the deep blue sea with the many cipollino and granite columns of the Theater and the Porticus. 

Nearby is the Market from 8 AD, an actual luxury square financed by the same Annobal Rufus. The master builder is said to have taken his inspiration directly from Rome, which he had visited. The main attraction here is the twin round kiosks in the middle of the market square. The slabs between the columns served as sale counters for fish, meat, vegetables, and fruit. They look like today's Market, but I can't imagine the unavoidable stench of fish and meat on a blistering hot day like today! Both kiosks were surrounded by octagonal porticos with columns made of cipollino marble with white marble Ionic capitals for the first and Pergamese for the second. We must mentally recreate the now-lost wooden table tops resting on the marble feet in the shape of dolphins. 

Noteworthy are the panels and lists where customers can check the correct measurement of their goods. One such panel shows three standard measures of length: the Punic cubit, which equals 51.5 cm; the Graeco-Roman foot, of 29.6 cm; and the Ptolemaic or Alexandrian cubit, which is 52.5 cm long. All measurements are divided into halves, thirds, fourths, eighths, sixteenths, and multiples. Who would have thought there were strict laws regulating the weights and measures in antiquity? The original panel is displayed at the local museum, but having a copy in situ is worthwhile! There are also large stone blocks with round and square holes where the correct quantity of grain and the like could be checked. Bronze control stamps confirm their official approval. Enough to leave anyone speechless! 

Two tetrapylons with ship reliefs on their base stood between these lovely buildings, once holding statues of the city's wealthy shipowners. Another statue honored a certain Porphyrius, who brought five live elephants to Leptis Magna. Just imagine them walking through here! 

The luxury of Leptis Magna is beyond anything I've ever seen, and I find it hard to believe how Rome could surpass this beauty, grandeur, ostentation, and extravagance. And yet there is more to come. 

[Read further at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II)

An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya

Alexander's presence in North Africa has been limited to Egypt, which in his days included Cyrene in modern Libya (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). The king knew of the Phoenician colonies and Carthage further west, but they were not part of his plan then. 

My visit to Libya happened later, too, because the impressive ruins of Leptis Magna are far too Roman to fit into my Alexander picture. 

However, the opportunity to travel to Libya arose just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring. With hindsight, I've never been so lucky! Not only because of the timing of my visit but also because it was here at Leptis Magna that I really understood what the grandeur of Rome meant. It is an impression that the ruins of Rome itself cannot give us. 

Leptis Magna or Lepcis Magna is located on the coast of the Mediterranean, 120 km east of Tripoli. It was founded by the Carthaginians around the 7^th century BC at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda and at the end of the caravan route from the Sahara. Grain and olive oil were the primary export product, but wild animals from the hinterland were also traded and shipped. 

Carthage was involved in successive fights over the fertile lands of Sicily, facing the locals and the growing power of Rome. Carthage and Rome fought each other during the three Punic Wars, which ended with the total destruction of Carthage by the Romans in 146 BC.   

Thanks to the generosity of the local merchants, Leptis Magna already had numerous public buildings from the time of Augustus and Tiberius (first century AD).  

By the end of the second century, many Africans held high positions in Rome, and it is said that 15% of the Roman senators came from North Africa. Emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193 to 211 AD, was born in Leptis Magna, and he wanted to build a city of imperial allure, a second Rome. 

He was an avid traveler and had visited every corner of his realm, casually crushing a rebellion here and conquering more land there. He spent the winter of 202-203 here in Leptis Magna. Septimius Severus had become wealthy from the goods he had confiscated from his enemies and could afford to undertake major construction projects. The best architects and sculptors of the time were brought here to build a new forum and a huge temple dedicated to the gods protecting the city. The harbor was expanded, the water supply was improved, and a richly decorated Triumphal Arch put Leptis Magna on the map. He brought peace and prosperity; the city counted at least 60 to 80,000 inhabitants in his heyday. Septimius Severus could afford some eccentricity because the population was on his side since he had granted them the ius italicum, an exemption from local taxes.

Despite all the prestige, Leptis Magna's days were numbered. The opulence of its people did not sit well with the Roman aristocracy and created a lot of envy. As a result,  most of the African property was confiscated, and soon decline set in. 

The city was seriously damaged by the earthquake of 262 AD. Emperor Diocletian ( see: Price list established by Emperor Diocletian) tried to restore order in the 3rd century by promoting Leptis Magna to the capital of the Province of Tripolitania. Yet, another devastating earthquake ravaged the city in 306 AD. 

With the Fall of the Roman Empire, Tripolitania remained part of the Western Roman Empire, i.e., under Rome's control, while the Cyrenaica was added to the Eastern Empire, i.e., Constantinople. By that time, the harbor of Leptis Magna silted up, and the Vandals moved from Rome to settle in the area. This definitely sealed the fate of the city. 

The Byzantine Empire took over and constructed the city wall, and many large buildings were converted into churches. After the Arab invasion in the 7th/8th century, Leptis Magna was still inhabited. Sadly, the grand city never reached its heyday from the 2nd and 3rd century AD. After the 11th century, Leptis Magna was abandoned and gradually disappeared into the sand. 

However, the magic lived on, and from the 17^th century onward, columns from Leptis Magna found their way to Europe. Versailles was a destination, together with the church of St-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. The Temple of the Gods, built in Windsor Great Park in 1826, has nine columns from Leptis Magna. 

In the 1920s and 1930s, Italian archaeologists excavated the site extensively, and the most beautiful artifacts were transferred to the Museum in Tripoli. Sadly, more recent diggings are at a standstill because of the political instability in Libya.

[Continue reading Leptis Magna or what Rome must have looked like - Part I]