Ecbatana, where Hephaistion died

Hephaistion died in Ecbatana in October 324 BC after being seriously ill with a high fever for about seven days. His symptoms may indicate a case of typhoid. When he seemed to have been over the worst and his appetite returned he is said to have consumed a whole chicken and a large bottle of wine. This was against his doctor’s orders, but Glaucias had left his patient to attend the games at one of the festivals organized for the entertainment of the troops. Alexander himself was at the theater when the news reached him that Hephaistion had fallen into agony and by the time he arrived at his friend’s bedside he had already died. The city was in mourning and its crenellations were shorn.

Today the city of Ecbatana has changed its name to Hamadan, literally meaning “the place of gathering”. It seems very few people remember Ecbatana’s name and fame from antiquity, once the capital of the Medes founded as early as the 8^th century BC. After the conquests of Cyrus the Great in 549 BC, the city became part of the Persian Empire. After his death, it was re-conquered by the Medes but not for long since the new Persian king Darius I took it back in 521 BC (this victory is depicted in the large relief at Bisutun). Since then, the Achaemenid kings used Ecbatana as their summer residence, a custom that was imitated by later Seleucid and Parthian kings alike.

If we consult the Greek historian Polybius, we are told that Ecbatana was the richest and most beautiful city in the world. It had no walls, only the palace which was set on an artificial terrace had fortifications that were approximately 1,250 meters long. This means that the palace stood on a plateau of approximately 300x300 meters (as compared to Persepolis’ 450x300m). Five hundred years earlier, Herodotus, on the other hand, wrote that the city was surrounded by seven concentric walls in different colors with the most inner walls plated with gold and silver. People were dwelling around the wall, meaning outside the palace walls on the fertile plain. These are apparently the only ancient texts we have to go by, and in the contradictory and confusing descriptions, we may wonder whether they are talking about the city walls, the palace walls, or maybe even the walls of the citadel. It all seems to be jumbled together.

Polybius does mention, however, that most of the precious metals were stripped off during the invasion of Alexander, but I can hardly believe this especially if he means the palace walls. Further stripping is said to have taken place by Antigonus Monophthalmus and by Seleucos, which is more plausible in my eyes.

Arrian, in turn, mentions the citadel of Ecbatana where the captured Persian treasure was kept under the watchful eye of Harpalus.

I was quite surprised to hear that there were ruins of old Ecbatana left at all and I only see dusty hills behind a fence. It seems the French dug here first, but since 1995 Iranian archaeologists have been excavating the site with unclear results so far. They may have found only the Parthian level, meaning that the Achaemenid and the Median levels are to be sought much deeper – or as suggested in 2007, at another nearby location. The problem is that part of modern Hamadan is built right on top of the ancient site. Good luck to future archaeologists!

Alexander visited Ecbatana twice. The first time was when he dismissed his Greek allied contingents, sending them back home will full payment for their services and an additional 2,000 talents as a gratuity. He was, however, willing to hire any of these soldiers in his service and put them on his regular payroll, and a great number of volunteers did indeed enlist. Those who returned home were escorted by a mounted guard and once they reached the Aegean they were shipped to Euboea. At this stage, it is clear that Alexander had conquered Persia and considered the League war as ended; from now on his campaigns were a Macedonian affair.

Alexander’s second visit took place six years later after the lavish mass wedding ceremony at Susa when he was on his way to Babylon. This is when Hephaistion fell ill and died. His body was transported by Craterus to Babylon where the funeral ceremony was held in November 324 BC, hardly seven months before Alexander’s own untimely death.

At Ecbatana are the poor remains of a lion that is connected to Hephaistion, either once part of a monument built in his honor or his mausoleum. I had seen pictures of this lion at its present location, high on an appropriate pedestal but the monument was not part of our visiting program. I pleaded my cause with the local guide, who agreed to make a small detour.

The Lion definitely is Hellenistic, apparently one of a pair that was still lying around in the late 1800s and a favorite toy for the local boys who climbed on it for a ride on its back. The prospect of having to leave Hamadan without a proper tribute to Hephaistion was simply beyond me after having traveled thousands of miles to get here. So I was lucky after all. I am now at peace with the place they have granted this poor shapeless lion. Hephaistion definitely deserves better but this is all there is although the lion may date from Seleucid or Parthian times.

Alexander’s psychological warfare in Pelium, Illyria

The name Selca e Poshtme in Albania did not ring any bells, and I was quite surprised to learn that this was an Illyrian necropolis and a royal one on top of that. I had no idea what an Illyrian tomb would or could look like, as I had never seen one before. But as soon as I stood in front of these tombs cut out of the face of the rocky wall, I felt at home right away, for they looked so familiar. I would have sworn they were Macedonian! 

I mentioned this site in my earlier travel story through Albania (see: Looking for Illyrian remains in Albania). Still, it deserves more attention since it is unique, more so since Selca e Poshtme is thought to be ancient Pelium.

For a start, there are five tombs, all belonging to the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. The oldest of these tombs is rather plain, with a rectangular burial chamber behind the usual antechamber, and is clearly related to the monumental Macedonian graves from the second half of the fourth century BC.

The next tomb was built around 270 BC and proudly shows a monumental façade of 6.4 meters wide and 3 meters high with an Ionic portico. This type of grave, otherwise unknown, has an open chamber in its center that was only used as a cenotaph (no body inside), but underneath the mosaic floor in front of the façade was the actual burial chamber where bones and urns were found together with some grave goods. The narrow alcove contained two sarcophagi decorated with reliefs shaped like a mortuary bed. Unfortunately, this tomb was looted towards the end of the third century BC, making it impossible to connect it to any specific person who must have been of high importance. On either side of the half-circular top entrance, a relief has been added between the two Ionic columns; on the left, we see a helmet, typically referring to Hellenistic rulers, and on the right, there is an Illyrian shield (looking very Macedonian!). This shield seems to connect the tomb with a local king. On the other hand, the helmet is nearly identical to the one found during WW1 near Lake Ohrid (now at the Antike Sammlung Museum in Berlin) that carries the inscription Basileos Monouniou, i.e., "of King Monounios." Sadly, there is no way to ensure that both elements belong together, but it certainly indicates that Monounios' rule reached as far as the Lyncestian lakes.

There are two other relatively simple tombs, one of which is characterized by a vaulted chamber in Macedonian style from the late 3rd century BC, and the other from the second half of the 4th century BC, showing a finely decorated "death bed."

Another spectacular tomb is the last one in the row, which is shaped like a miniature theater and belongs to the third century BC. The tomb proper is dug under the center stage, so to speak, making believe that relatives could gather around the deceased seated on the surrounding tiers. Presently, the tomb is filled with groundwater that mirrors the theater effect weirdly.

Yet, why are these tombs here, and where does this King Monounios fit in? The site of the necropolis is that of an old quarry that was used by the citizens to build their city and walls. This is supposedly the ancient city of Pelium, perched high on an acropolis that overlooks the River Shkumbin. In the middle of the 4th century BC, the Illyrian city was protected by a wall and must have been buzzing with life. The fact that these tombs are so close to the city is an indication by itself that they must be royal ones.

Pelium is indeed mentioned by Arrian as a border fortress when Alexander the Great crossed the area on his way back from the Danube campaign in 335 BC and faced the Illyrians' revolt. Cleitus, the formidable king of the Dardanians (from around Kosovo), had persuaded the Autariatae (from around Bosnia) to join forces to attack Alexander on his march, and even the Taulantians (from around Tirana) were willing to join Cleitus. Alexander had to act quickly to avoid being enclosed on all sides and promptly reached Paeonia (Skopje), crossed the plains of Florina to the heart of Illyria at Pelium, where Cleitus was holding this fortress. The Macedonian king arrived before Glaucias, king of the Taulantians, could join forces with Cleitus. According to Arrian, the town was surrounded by thickly wooded heights of which nothing much remains. Cleitus' troops were posted in these woods from where they hoped to attack the Macedonians. Still, as soon as Alexander charged, the enemy abandoned their protected position and fled inside the walls of Pelium, where Alexander kept them under close watch.

As he was getting ready to attack the city, Glaucias and his sizable force of Taulantians appeared on the nearby wooded hilltops, putting Alexander between two fires. He was in a precarious position, for his only way out was a steep, narrow path above the river. So Alexander played one of his masterly psychological cards. He drew the main body of his infantry in a massive formation 120 men deep, with on either wing 200 cavalrymen with the orders to obey his orders smartly. The heavy infantry was then commanded in a succession of maneuvers, pointing their spears forward and upward and making right and left turns. The entire phalanx then moved forward, wheeled around at each command, and executed a series of intricate movements. The enemy was shaken by this display of discipline and left their position on the lower slopes. At this stage, Alexander called his men to raise the battle cry and to clash their spears against their shields. It must have been a frightening sight and sound for the Taulantians, who hastily sought shelter under the city walls.

A reduced party, however, was still holding a hilltop that was in Alexander's way. He sent out a small detachment of Companions and personal guards in their direction, but upon their approach, the enemy withdrew. Alexander then occupied the hill and ordered about 2,000 men to cross the river and form a solid front on the other bank facing the enemy. Meanwhile, Alexander stayed put on his hilltop, keeping a watchful eye on the wooded area where Glaucias and his troops had retreated. Surely enough, as soon as the natives saw the Macedonians crossing the river, they seized the moment to attack Alexander and his party before they followed. Alexander reacted immediately with a counter-attack while the infantry raised their battle cry from the river below. The enemy's ranks broke, and Alexander quickly instructed his party to advance at the double to the river. He was the first to cross to set up his artillery on the riverbank. He ordered them to fire with every possible missile as far as they could to stop the enemy, while at the same time, he had his archers, who by now were mid-stream, shooting their volleys in the same direction. Glaucias was no fool and held his army out of range. The Macedonians reached safety without any casualties.

Three days later, Alexander, upon learning that Cleitus and Glaucias had not posted sentries around their nearby camp, which was not even protected by a palisade or a trench, immediately decided to attack them by night. Caught by surprise, the enemy had no time to organize a defense, and many were killed on the spot, while others fled in panic. Alexander pressed his enemies far into the Taulantian Mountains. Cleitus moved to Pelium and set it afire before seeking refuge with Glaucias. For now, Alexander had at least one enemy less to face.

At this time, a more pressing matter demanded his attention: Thebes had revolted and called the other Greeks to end Macedonian rule. To motivate their cause, the Thebans went even so far as to spread the rumor that Alexander had died in Illyria! This required a drastic change of plans, and luckily for Alexander, the Illyrians did not raise arms against him again. Within two weeks, Alexander appeared before the walls of Thebes, but that is another story.

The early years of Alexander's kingship are widely ignored, and Arrian seems to be the only source to mention the young king's northern campaigns – no wonder the name of Pelium (even less Selca e Poshtme) didn't ring a bell with me right away. But isn't it exciting when names and places can be tied together in such an unexpected way? Archaeology in Albania is still in its infancy, it seems, and excavations are merely carried out by the French or Italians. There is still a lot of work to be done here in Pelium. So far, our knowledge is based on Arrian and coins found in cities like Apollonia (Albania) and Epidamnos/Dyrrhachion (modern Dürres, Albania). Still, I feel confident that one day the history of Hellenistic or even Classical Greece in this country will be revealed. That will be my day, of course!

Standing here in this desolate and isolated landscape, it is hard to believe that a grand capital like Pelium once crowned this very hill above the Illyrian necropolis or that it was linked by important roads to other cities of the ancient world. In Roman times, it became one of the many stops along the famous Via Egnatia, whose trail is still easy to follow.

[Photos 1 and 2 are courtesy of Wim]
[More pictures can be found by clicking on this link of mine]