Side’s Museum clean up

The Archaeological Museum of Side had a charm that was quite unique. It is housed inside the ancient Roman Baths from the 2^nd century AD, which had been restored and roofed in the 1960s. 

I found the interior quite exciting, as the marble floors and water basins gave me a true sense of what the Roman public must have experienced when visiting these baths, with high vaulted ceilings and filtered natural light from the windows high above. 

[Picture from Turkiye Today, AA Photo]

Presently, the exhibition space has been revamped, i.e., officially restored. The pictures published in Turkiye Today show how the statues stand inside shop windows framed with neon light. Each highlighted ‘window’ regroups a number of artefacts in the otherwise semi-obscure interior. The features of the Baths have disappeared, including the remarkable original marble floor. 

The renovation is clearly meant to attract more visitors, or visitors of another kind. The newspaper article stresses the large collection of more than 3,000 artifacts and nearly 10,000 coins ranging from the Late Bronze Age to Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine times. Must we assume that they were hidden from view until now? 

Although the museum held many sarcophagi, statues, reliefs, and inscriptions, I was not really impressed by the quality of the pieces. The most striking object was the bit of inscription written in the lost Sidetic language (see: Progress in deciphering the lost language of Side). 

Since 2014, new excavations have exposed many more artifacts that are not being specified in any way. Some are said to be presented here for the first time. Otherwise, they are vaguely referred to as contributing to a better insight into Side's daily life. Let’s hope for more information to substantiate this theory!

Progress in deciphering the lost language of Side

Sidetic, the language spoken in the region of Side long before Alexander's arrival, remains generally a mystery. Till now, it is not fully understood, as only 26 letters of the alphabet have been identified. Researchers based their study on bilingual inscriptions (Greek/Sidetic) consisting of just one or two lines found during excavations of the archaeological site. 

Recently, longer bilingual texts, some of which run 30 to 40 lines, were discovered, and five more letters could be added to the existing list, raising the number to 31 letters. 

The research is now focusing on the structure of the alphabet, word forms, and possible links with Anatolian languages other than the Greek dialects of Sillyum or Aspendos that are unrelated. However, Sidetic could be compared with other Anatolian languages, such as Lycian and Carian, which, given the location of Side, make them good candidates. 

As I mentioned before (see: Side didn’t put up any resistance to Alexander), the word Side means pomegranate, and scholars tend to attach the same meaning to its Sidetic forms of ‘Siruawn’ and ‘ Siruawan’. After all, pomegranates are still widely grown in the area today, and it is obvious that they stamped their mark on the city’s name, language, and symbols such as its coins. 

It is often said that Greek supplanted Sidetic after Alexander conquered the city in 333 BC, but we should keep in mind that this change did not happen overnight. Many later inscriptions in Sidetic confirm that the inhabitants continued to use their own language. 

A striking example is the bilingual inscription found in the Temple of Serapis from the 2^nd century AD. Its construction behind the great theater was sponsored by local citizens whose names and deeds were carved in stone to thank them. It was obviously important that the people of Side could read and properly understand the importance of their contribution in their own language six centuries after Alexander! 

Side and the restored Temple of Athena

The iconic picture of Side is the white marble remains of the Temple of Apollo, close to the harbor (see: Side didn’t put up any resistance to Alexander). For many years, it was thought to be the only temple in the area. 

The city had two major gods, Apollo and Athena, but only the Temple of Apollo was known so far. It was assumed that the Temple of Athena had to stand nearby, and recent excavations, some of which had to be carried out on private properties, have finally revealed its layout next to the Temple of Apollo. 

[Picture from Daily Sabagh]

Remains of the original columns surfaced and were used in the restoration of the sanctuary. The project was successfully completed in November 2024. 

The temples of Apollo and Athena are again visible, standing side by side, a rare occurrence in the ancient world, although not unique. At Side, Apollo was closely associated with the city’s name, while Athena was considered to be the chief goddess assuring the prosperity of trade in the harbor. 

The restoration of the Temple of Athena clearly emphasizes the historical and religious significance of ancient Side. 

To provide a richer understanding of the city’s importance, plans exist to undertake the restoration of the shiny Temple of Apollo that suffered from exposure to all weather conditions over the past centuries. A very tempting prospect! 

Visit ancient cities in Turkey by night

As of this year, 2025, major archaeological sites remain accessible until late in the evening, often after sunset. The idea is for tourists to avoid excessive daytime temperatures. These late opening hours, which will also apply to several museums, will apply until 1 October 2025. 

I can’t help wondering how safe such nighttime visits will be. Museums should not be a problem, but ancient sites are another issue. I can imagine admiring the temples, theaters, and statuary lit by floodlights, although with some cautiousness, but walking over uneven pavement may be quite hazardous. 

An excellent example is, for instance, Mount Nemrud, which will open already at 4 a.m. and close at 9 p.m. Watching the sunrise or sunset from up there is a unique and unforgettable experience. But climbing the high-stepped stairs to the monument is a challenge by daytime, so much more so by dawn or dwindling light! 

Anyway, for the brave ones or daredevils, I am sharing the sites and museums that offer extended variable visiting hours. 

Closing times for archaeological sites and museums in 2025:

Istanbul
Galata Tower – 11 p.m.
Hagia Sophia History and Experience Museum – 10 p.m.
Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum – 10 p.m.
Archaeology Museums (excluding closed sections) – 10 p.m.

Adiyaman
Nemrud – 4 a.m. to 9 a.m.

Ankara
Museum of Anatolian Civilizations – 9 p.m.
Ethnography Museum – 9 p.m.

Antalya
Antalya Museum – 10 p.m.
Alanya Museum – 10 p.m.
Aspendos – 10 p.m.
Patara – 10 p.m.
Side – 10 p.m.
Nekropol Museum – 10 p.m. 

Aydin

Didyma – 9 p.m.

Denizli
Hierapolis – 11 p.m.

Erzurum

Erzurum Museum – 9 p.m.

Gaziantep
Zeugma Mosaic Museum – 9 p.m.

Izmir
Ephesos – 11 p.m. (Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday)
Museum Izmir Culture and Arts Factory – 9 p.m.

Mugla
Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology – 10 p.m.

Nevsehir - Cappadocia
Zelve-Pasa Baglari – 9 p.m.
Derinkuyu Underground City – 9 p.m.
Kaymakli Underground City – 9 p.m.
Ozkonak Underground City – 9 p.m.

Samsun
Samsun Museum – 10 p.m.

Sanliurfa
SanliUrfa Museum – 9 p.m.
Haleplibahce Mosaic Museum – 9 p.m.

The Carian language

What a surprise, there was a Carian language! 

So far, I have encountered inscriptions in the Lycian language and in Pamphylian, and even a rare bit in the language of Side but until now, Carian has eluded me. 

A chance revelation came from the Turkish site of Zero Books advertising for this new book “Kaunos Kbid 1966-2021” by Baki Öğün, Cengiz Işık (ISBN-ISSN: 9786256212046).

The front cover displays a very sharp image of a bilingual text from the 4^th century BC, written in Carian and Ancient Greek. A parallel can be made with Lycian which used the Greek alphabet but added extra letters for the sounds that do not exist in Greek. Carian applied the same rule. Useless to say that this bilingual document contributed widely to deciphering the Carian language. 

It is noteworthy that the Carian inscription does not use the Greek city’s name Kaunos or Caunos but Kbid as known by the Carian people. 

The Introduction of the book on Zero Books reads as follows: 

While the numerous inscriptions unearthed at archaeological sites throughout the Eastern Mediterranean help to understand many aspects of the ancient world and its peoples, bilingual ones (Bilingue) are very special and valuable to linguists in deciphering ancient languages and understanding their structures.
The Kaunos Bilingue, written in Carian and Ancient Greek in the 4th century BCE, made a great contribution to the understanding of the Carian language. Although the Carian alphabet superficially resembles the Ancient Greek alphabet, it differs in that some similar-looking letters take on different sounds in the language and there are a few letters specific to Carian. Moreover, the most striking part of this Bilingue, long before the use of Greek name Kaunos, is the use of the original name of the city, KBID, given to their city by the Carians, the indigenous people of Anatolia. 

More information about the unique city of Caunos can be found in my earlier blog post, The surprise of Caunos.

Reading and decoding inscriptions

Today’s visitors will inevitably come across many inscriptions when visiting ancient sites or museums. Reading Greek or Latin is not for everybody, and understanding the meaning of the text and context is reserved only for the happy few. The stone or marble support has more often than not suffered from wear and tear, leaving the untrained eye to merely guess its value. 

We are lucky to find an explanation next to the inscription, rarely a full translation, as those are reserved for scholars. Well, the text may be boring, but it also may contain some exciting twists and turns. Yet, who wants to know? 

In antiquity, people would read the latest laws and decrees, regulations and agreements, peace treaties, manumission of slaves, grave markers, boundary stones, milestones, etc., as they walked through public spaces. Some of these texts are still in situ, particularly those engraved on the walls of still-standing monuments. The majority, however, has found a place in the museum for safekeeping and is often out of sight. 

The most familiar examples of inscriptions are those chiseled on grave steles, sarcophagi, and tombs. They also appear on the pedestals of statues lining streets such as Phaselis’ Harbor Street or Olympia’s road to the Stadium. Others serve to identify the deities, kings, and emperors that fill the sanctuaries and agoras, or the niches of theatres, stadiums, libraries, baths, Nymphaeums, and other public buildings. 

But some inscriptions will surprise many of us. 

For instance, this stele at the Louvre Museum holds the accounts of the Parthenon Treasury. The text covers both sides of the stele made of Pentelikon marble and illustrates how democracy works. Athens’ magistrates submitted the public accounts to the citizens for all to see. The front side, beneath a relief of the Sacred Olive Tree flanked by Athena and the people (demos), displays the expenses for military operations, religious ceremonies, and the Panathenaic festival held in honor of their patron goddess for 410-409 BC. The reverse side has the expenditures for 407-406 BC.

In Butrint, Albania, a striking series of inscriptions is carved on the outside walls of the Roman Theater of Buthrotum, as the city was called in antiquity. 

They are hard to read but worth our attention because these are manumissions, slaves who had gained their freedom for whatever reason. Their sheer number is mind-blowing!

As surprising and revealing are the Edicts on prices! Who would have thought that there were strict rules to define the prices of goods in antiquity! 

The first such example I encountered was at Ptolemais in Libya, proclaimed by Emperor Diocletian in 301 AD.

Also by Diocletian is the Edict on maximum prices for products and labor discovered in Halicarnassus, dated to 301 AD. The Emperor hoped to stave off a financial crisis and prevent inflation. 

Although this tablet was unearthed in Bodrum (the modern name for Halicarnassus), bits of similar Edicts were also found in Pergamon, Aizanoi, Aphrodisias, and Stratonikea. It is quite surprising to read that the Edict from Halicarnassus consists of 37 parts. Part 9, for instance, is about shoes and boots … 27 different kinds and sizes are listed!

Taxes are another matter that deserves attention. One such inscription that is hard to miss can be seen on Curetes Street in Ephesos, close to the Library. 

This tax law was written in the second half of the 4^th century AD, during the rule of Emperors Valentian I, Valens, and Gratian.

Less obvious is Alexander’s tax remission from the wall of the Temple of Athena in Priene, now exhibited in the British Museum in London. 

Alexander contributed to the cost of building the unfinished temple, and in return, he was allowed to dedicate it: “King Alexander dedicated the temple of Athena Polias”. 

This text was followed by a longer inscription setting out the terms of an agreement between Alexander and Priene under which the city was to be exempt from taxation. 

Not all inscriptions were written in Greek or Latin, and I find it fascinating to hunt for these exceptions. 

Having a closer look at Lycia’s sarcophagi strewn throughout the landscape, I discovered texts that seemed to be written in Greek but are in Lycian, as they contain several odd letters that do not exist in the Greek alphabet. Antiphellos and Limyra have good illustrations of Lycian texts.

Another case is to be found in Sillyum, some 25 kilometers northeast of Antalya, an often overlooked site, although the hillside is easily spotted in the otherwise flat plain of Pamphylia. 

It takes some detective work to locate the inscription in the Pamphylian language carved in the doorpost of a Hellenistic building – a very rewarding effort though!

The people of ancient Side also had a language of their own. A small inscription has survived and can be seen at the local museum located inside the remains of the Roman Baths.

After Alexander conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, Greek became the lingua franca, and the local tongues disappeared.

Remembering Alexander’s birthday

We can be certain that Alexander never expected a hoard of tetradrachms with his effigy to be found and cherished nearly 2,500 years after his death. If that is not a worthy birthday gift, what is? 

This find dates from 2017, when a farmer recovered the coins from his land near Batman, on the confluence of the Tigris River and the Batman River in southeastern Turkey. The coins were all Alexander tetradrachms minted in the period between 332 and 322 BC. 

The coins fell into the hands of a Turkish collector, who said the hoard was complete, although no container was recorded. Since then, all the coins have been sold and disappeared from the radar. This means we only have the collector’s word for the information that has transpired. 

The coins were minted in several of the 25 known locations, such as Amphipolis, Aradus (Syria), Side, Sidon, and to a larger extent (one-third) in Babylonia. 

The Amphipolis mint was very active during the regency of Antipater, although the silver did not originate from local mines. The majority of the precious metal came from looting, and by far the largest amounts were collected by Alexander from the Achaemenid Treasuries in Babylon, Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana (see: Harpalos’ mismanagement or is it Alexander’s?). We will remember that the king borrowed money when he started his invasion of Asia and took the bullion from the cities as he conquered them. 

The Batman hoard may have belonged to one of the Greek and/or Balkan mercenaries Alexander disbanded in late 325 or early 324 BC, or to one of his Macedonian veterans he sent home after the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC. This last group of 10,000 veterans, led by Craterus, was moving slowly through Cilicia when the news of Alexander’s death reached them. In antiquity, the Batman region was on the border between the satrapies of Armenia and Mesopotamia, not far from Cilicia. For that reason, it makes sense to link the hoard to the demobilized soldiers commanded by Craterus. 

It is important to realize that the Alexander coins were minted according to the standard Attic drachma of 4.3 grams. It has been estimated that between 333 and 290 BC, approximately 60 million tetradrachms were produced (see: A few words about Alexander mints and coins). More importantly, every soldier, veteran, and foreigner was totally familiar with Alexander’s picture and trusted the value of the coin bearing his image. For a long time, coins with Alexander's image kept circulating because his veteran soldiers were used to receiving their pay in tetradrachms!  

It remains questionable whether or how many of the 60,000,000 tetradrachms will ever be found. As the coins keep surfacing, we have to thank Alexander for his long-lasting legacy. By wishing him “Many Happy Returns,” we truly pay tribute to the timeless legacy he has left us. 

The Attalids, rulers of Pergamon

The Attalid Dynasty of Pergamon started with Philetairos in 282 BC, roughly fifty years after the death of Alexander. 

It remains difficult to imagine the wealth Alexander had accumulated from his conquest of Asia.  The rise of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties can hardly be compared to that of Lysimachos, who did not draw the best cards. The War of the Diadochi was a very intricate and complex bickering and conniving from which all parties did not profit equally. However, Lysimachos put his share of the booty to good use and his trusted treasury keeper, Philetairos, did the same giving Pergamon the jump start it needed.

The starting date of the Pergamon Dynasty is much later than for the empires of  Seleucos in 312 BC, and Ptolemy in 305 BC founded at the end of the War of the Diadochy. 

Philetairos was a eunuch who had served under Antigonus Monophtalmos. In 302 BC he deserted him to join Lysimachos, the king of Northwest Asia Minor. At the death of Antigonus, Lysimachos rewarded Philetairos for his loyalty by putting him in charge of his treasury (inherited from Alexander) in Pergamon. 

But when Lysimachos, upon the instigation of his wife, murdered his only son, Agathocles, Philetairos joined Seleucos I. Soon afterwards, Seleucos’ forces murdered Lysimachos leaving Philetairos to rule Pergamon until 263 BC. Seleucos granted him great autonomy, which enabled him to expand his territory. Unable to have children of his own, Philetairos had adopted his nephew, the future Eumenes I, who would succeed him in 263 BC. 

One year into his kingship, Eumenes defeated the Seleucid King Antiochus near Sardes, which enabled him to create an independent city-state of Pergamon. Eumenes did not have children either and the throne went to his nephew and cousin, Attalus, who went down into history as Attalus I Soter. Attalus ruled from 241 to 197 BC and many historians still consider him as the founder of the Attalid Dynasty, with Pergamon as its capital. 

The reign of Attalus I was all but peaceful. The Seleucids had lost power over Lysimachos' territories of Pergamon, Bithynia, Nicomedia, and Cappadocia, which gained their independence. Attalus expanded his territory but lost much of it to Seleucos II later on. However, he managed to save Pergamon from the attacks of the Galatians on his northern border and to establish friendly relations with the Romans. That’s how he got involved in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which opposed the weakening kingdom of Macedonia to Rome, as an ally of Pergamon. Attalus suffered a stroke during peace negotiations in Thebes and was brought back to Pergamon, where he died in 197 BC. 

Eumenes II took over where his father left off but mingling in the affairs of the Seleucids in Syria did not sit well with the Senate of Rome. No reason for Eumenes to be distracted from carrying out his own large expansion program in Pergamon, where he built the unique Great Altar and the massive Library, second only to that of Alexandria. The Romans resented the power and independence Eumenes displayed, which in their eyes reduced their own sphere of influence in Asia Minor. Sadly, although still in his early sixties, Eumenes’ health began to deteriorate, and he appointed his brother Attalus II as a co-ruler. One year later, in 159 BC, Eumenes died. His own son was still an infant, and consequently, Attalus II, who conveniently married his widow, became the new king. He also adopted his brother’s young son, who was to become the future Attalus III. 

Attalus II continued Eumenes’ building projects in Pergamon, this time including the Palace. He also funded the construction of a new temple to Hera Basileia between the lower Agora and the Gymnasium. 

He was familiar with the political situation he inherited. He had no real enemies and was careful to recognize the authority of Rome. Instead of going to war, Attalus II expanded his influence by spending lavish amounts of money on prestige projects. For instance, he contributed to the construction of a splendid Stoa in the Agora of Athens, at the foot of the Acropolis. This is the Stoa of Attalus II, which was restored/ reconstructed by the American School of Classical Studies in the early 1950s. Another Stoa carrying his name was built in Termessos next to the Corinthian temple.

As always, all kinds of taxes were raised to pay for these grand expenses, but Attalus equally improved trade in his kingdom, building markets and safe harbors. He certainly needed reliable access to a harbor, and Attalus attempted to subdue Side. In the wake of this failed attempt, he added part of Pamphylia to his kingdom, where he founded an entirely new port. He named it Attaleia, after himself, i.e., modern Antalya. Attalus II died at the blessed age of 81 or 82 in 138 BC. 

His successor was his nephew and adopted son, Attalus III. However, the new king was not interested in his kingship or in Pergamon. No wonder that he was rather unpopular among his citizens. When he died five years later of disease, he bequeathed Pergamon to Rome, which made it the capital of their Provincia Asia.

Although there may have been one last pretender to the throne, a supposed illegitimate son of Eumenes II, the Attalid Dynasty came to an abrupt end in 133 BC. 

In hardly 150 years, the Attalids had built one of the greatest Hellenistic centers for culture and art, mainly under the reigns of Eumenes II and Attalus II, which still intrigues us.

The end of Pergamon was all but glorious. After being hit by a severe earthquake in 262 AD, its decline was set in motion. The Muslims sacked what remained standing during their raid of 663 AD. More setbacks followed after the conquests by the Byzantine Empire and around 1300 AD by the Ottoman Empire. Slowly, the majestic site deteriorated to the point it was abandoned and forgotten until the first explorers of the 18^th and 19^th centuries rediscovered Pergamon.

An important update on Side

These days, the main attraction of Side seems to be centered on what is called the Monumental Nymphaeum, opposite the main city gate. 

[Picture from Turkish Archaeological News]

This fountain belongs to the 2^nd century AD when Side prospered and its Roman occupants did not shy away from making a statement. The richly decorated construction was three stories high and adorned with many statues, which have been moved to the local Museum. The three niches on the lower floor above the water basin are still standing, but otherwise, the Nymphaeum has been heavily reconstructed. Originally, the water would have cascaded down through the slots in the façade, not unlike what we can see in Sagalassos (see: Sagalassos in Alexander’s campaign). 

The Roman architects built an aqueduct to supply the water for the Nymphaeum. It also fed the public baths, fountains, and cisterns, whereas the wealthiest citizens had running water and a sewer in their homes. 

The water came from the Manavgat River, whose waterfalls are another modern tourist attraction. The source of the river was in the Taurus Mountains, some 40 kilometers from the city center of Side. The renovation of the aqueduct in the early 3^rd century AD was financed by Side’s benefactor Lollianods Bryonianos and his wife Quirina Patra. Today, sections of the aqueduct are still visible in the landscape. Also in an opening in the city walls pipes and water channels made of marble, terracotta, and lead can be seen. 

[My own picture taken in 2009]

The above is proof, if needed, that it is not enough to visit a site just once. New excavations are carried out, even intermittently. I realize that my last post on Side was written ten years ago with Alexander as the focal point (see: Side didn’t put up any resistance to Alexander). It happened after my more in-depth exploration done earlier, in 2009. 

The more recent exploration and excavations focusing on the Roman aqueduct and the monumental Nymphaeum triggered the present update.

Greek, or not so Greek

Inscriptions in Greek are just one of many. For the layman, they are nice to see, but they add nothing to the beauty or to the specific style of a monument. The mind casually registers the Greek letters. Deciphering those ancient texts must be an exciting occupation but unfortunately limited to a select group of scholars.

Ereichteion building accounts in Greek

For obvious reasons, Greek is the vehicular language in ancient Greece and also in Ionia, the Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor. Once further inland and eastward, Greek becomes the lingua franca with the rise of Hellenism. We have to thank Alexander the Great for spreading the language is his wake. 

In antiquity, temple walls held the latest decrees, the agoras displayed the edict on prices, and the base of statues or tombstones left us the name of the owner. Whenever of particular interest, these Greek slabs have been removed from their location and ended up inside a museum. Often, they reside entirely out of context in a dark storage room. From time to time, a rare example is dusted off to be seen by the museum visitor. If we are lucky, their label provides us with useful information otherwise totally lost.

Those occasional displays remain problematic as I discovered recently at the Louvre in Paris. Here, a particular gallery exhibits about a dozen engraved slabs. However, unless you are a scholar or a historian thoroughly familiar with the history of the finding place, it remains impossible to appreciate their value or significance. 

Lycian inscription from Xanthos

Luckily there are interesting details that even an untrained eye can easily spot. One striking example is the Lycian language. At first sight, the letters are Greek, but on closer look, they are mixed with several un-Greek signs. The profusion of sarcophagi that are strewn all over the Lycian landscape is a valuable source of information that provides many such texts we can readily recognize. 

Pamphylian language from Sillyum

Another oddity is the Pamphylian language that was different from Greek but used the same letters. An example is, for instance, left in situ on the doorjamb of an ancient building in Sillyum. It is not easy to find but makes a fascinating reading experience, especially since it is in its proper place and keeps its full meaning.

Entirely foreign, however, are the letters used in the language of the people in Side. One such a rare transcript is displayed at the Museum of Side and worth to be noticed. I can’t help wondering how it would sound and if a Greek visitor was able to converse with a Sidian.

Sidian text

Of course, each region had (and still has) its own dialect that generally was not too foreign to Greek speakers. Macedonian, as a matter of fact, was considered as “a kind of Greek” but the texts were written in Greek – even if this was not exactly Attic Greek.

I agree that the subject of written language definitely is beyond my comfort zone but lifting a tiny corner of deciphering ancient writing is by itself very worthwhile. Even if it opens only a small window into this vast world.