The Code of Hammurabi not the oldest in the world?

At school, I learned that the Laws of the Babylonian King Hammurabi, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 BC, were the oldest in the world. The name Hammurabi stuck with me, and I was very excited to see the actual basalt column at the Louvre Museum in Paris. It was hard to comprehend that these 282 laws were almost 4,000 years old. 

Although the attribution to Hammurabi for being the first is still widely spread, it has been established that several kings wrote a set of laws before him. In 1947, the Code of Lipit-Ishtar, though incomplete, was discovered, and one year later, the Code of Ur-Nammu. Well, they were not exactly laws but rather Codes, like codes of conduct, on how to behave and live in harmony in the ever-changing world and growing population. 

New studies have revealed that some 300 years before Hammurabi, the Sumerian King Ur-Nammu (reigned 2112-2094) composed 57 laws. Later kings followed and adapted these codes to their specific needs. Around 1930 BC, for instance, the Laws of Eshnunna (a city in ancient Mesopotamia) were written down, which, soon afterwards, were revised by the Sumerian King Lipit-Ishtar. In the end, all these codes and laws served as a model to create the Laws of Hammurabi.

In the time of King Hammurabi, Babylon had become a cosmopolitan trade center that attracted people from as far away as Greece and Egypt. I find it hard to believe that such laws and wisdom from centuries ago could have been lost by the time Alexander arrived in Babylon in 331 BC or ignored by later rulers. Law and order are of the essence – then as now! Babylon was not a faraway place in Alexander’s realm, and it still is in today’s world of global exchanges! 

Unlike his predecessors, Hammurabi emphasized the physical punishment of the perpetrator. We all know his famous line, “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” while he also established that the accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty (still part of the American Constitution!) What’s more, the Code of Hammurabi served as a blueprint for later legislation implemented by the Romans and far into our modern world. 

Digging deeper, it appears that a much earlier law code from Mesopotamia existed in roughly the 24^th century BC. The actual text of this Code of Urukagina has not been found (yet), but survives through second-hand references in other ancient works. 

[Picture of Ur-Nammu by Donald Mackenzie]

There is very much to tell about the Code of Hammurabi, the Code of Ur-Nammu, and others that go far beyond the scope of this blog. An extensive study on the subject has been made by Joshua J. Mark, published on the site of World History. 

Your enemy’s table has become your footstool

The expression can be taken philosophically, but in the case of Alexander, it was meant literally. The scene is set in Susa, where he arrived in late 331 BC after having spent four weeks in Babylon. Here, he installed Sisygambis, Darius’ mother, as well as her grandchildren, who had traveled with her since the aftermath of the Battle of Issus in 333 BC.

The Treasury of Susa was handed over, intact, meaning a bullion of 40,000 talents of gold and silver and 9,000 talents in gold darics. This was the largest amount Alexander ever collected in one take. Happy with this outcome and the surrender of Susa, Alexander sat down on the royal throne of Xerxes to savor the moment. This throne, however, was outsized by Alexander’s small stature, and his feet did not reach the footstool that belonged to his royal seat. One of his attentive pages, noticing this shortcoming, pulled up a table that had belonged to Darius and slid it under the king’s feet. Alexander was very pleased with this solution, but looking around, he noticed that one of Darius’ eunuchs was lamenting and crying. He evidently asked him what the matter was, and the eunuch replied that he was grieved to see that the table that Darius used for his meals was now to serve in such an insulting way. Alexander realized that in the eyes of the Persians, he had committed an act of arrogance and ordered the table to be removed. But then Philotas intervened by saying that this was an omen since the table of his enemy had been turned into the king’s footstool. Alexander apparently took the remark at heart and ordered the table to be left at the foot of his throne.

One can argue that Philotas was right, of course, but on the other hand, this was clearly a lack of respect for centuries-old Persian royal traditions. This incident may well have been one of the first such confrontations between West and East. In Macedonia, things were done in a rather austere way, and the eastern wealth with its protocol and glamor was something entirely new.

Alexander’s first encounter with the Oriental way of life occurred right after the Battle of Issus, when Darius’ tent had fallen into Macedonian hands and had been prepared for Alexander as he returned from his unsuccessful pursuit of the fleeing Darius. When he entered his enemy’s tent, he remarked – rightfully so – this is what it means to be a king!

Yet, as impressive as these traveling quarters were, it certainly was only a faint hint of what he found two years later in Babylon. Although the origins of Babylon may go back as far as the 23^rd century BC, its first archives date from 2286 BC. After being occupied by the Assyrians (Ashurbanipal) and the Neo-Babylonians (Nebuchadnezzar), the Empire fell to the Persians (Cyrus the Great) before Alexander arrived in October 331 BC. This implies that the Palace of Babylon was built, destroyed, and rebuilt several times over the centuries, and despite the shiny blue tiles, it has a somewhat reserved appearance.

Susa, on the other hand, was founded circa 4,200 BC and has Elamite origins. This is where the famous Code of Hammurabi stood from 1175 BC onwards. The city was also conquered by Cyrus the Great to eventually become part of the Persian Empire. Yet the glazed brick walls in Susa are friendlier than those at Babylon, as many pastel colors were implemented, giving the walls automatically a more pleasant appearance. The palace and its decorations must have impressed Alexander and his entourage. After all, they had not seen Persepolis yet!

Certainly, at this stage, Alexander had no idea of the wealth and luxuries that still awaited him, making his enemies' tables nothing more than his footstools.

Interestingly, the very stone slab on which the king’s throne once stood is still in place among the ruins of Susa, and it is hard to realize that this is the very throne on which Alexander once seated himself. 

A mental reconstruction of Alexander’s triumphal march into Babylon

For obvious reasons, I have not visited Babylon. Still, I am terribly happy to have at least been able to see the next best thing, the city’s imposing reconstructions at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.

In a way, it may just be as well that I had not seen the remains of Babylon, located less than 100 kilometers south of modern Baghdad in Iraq, simply because this historical site has been so intensively damaged during the Iraqi War when the American army used the place as a military camp, destroying a part of the city in the process (see also: Babylon, victim of war). The old paved roads leading to the different city gates have crumbled under the weight of heavy tanks. Much of the rubble (often precious archaeological material) has been used in constructing airfields for helicopters and parking lots. Smaller archaeological material was also used to fill sandbags. The scanty remains of the Ishtar Gate have also suffered. To be fair, we cannot ignore that under Saddam Hussein, Babylon was not treated with much consideration either, for in 1983, he started building a city of his own on top of the fragile ruins of the dried brick walls.

He inscribed his name on the bricks, just as Nebuchadnezzar had done 2,500 years before him, and he made serious plans to erect a palace of his own atop the ruins. The outbreak of the Gulf War put an end to these damaging plans, but since then, the modern bricks and mortar of Saddam’s megalomania have dangerously undermined the fragile ruins.

Peace has not returned yet. For several years, villagers, invading armies, and fortune seekers plundered whatever they could. An ever-increasing number of people settled in new villages on top of the ruins, and rising groundwater threatened the ancient walls even further. To make matters worse, the Iraqi oil business is spoiling the precious grounds of this wondrous city, tearing up the soil to lay down their pipelines 1.7 meters deep right next to two other pipelines that were dug under Saddam Hussein. The Ministry of Oil ignored their Iraqi archaeologists' pleas, stating that they didn’t find any artifacts during their diggings – as if they were experts in the matter!

Historians tell us that Alexander entered Babylon through the Ishtar Gate and proceeded over the Procession Way from where the Royal Palace, the Temple of Marduk, and the Ziggurat came into full view. This is the first grand city Alexander encountered, and as he approached it from the dusty Mesopotamian plain, he must have been awed and impressed by the deep blue glazed brick walls rising amidst the lush green grasses on the banks of the Euphrates River.

Over the centuries, Babylon has seen many conquerors enter through its gates. This is where King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) wrote the very first laws etched in stone, now one of the proud possessions of the Louvre Museum. It is also the city where King Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC), out of love for his homesick wife, built the famous hanging gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Last but not least, this is where the biblical and historical Tower of Babel ruled over the sacred complex, including the Temple of Ishtar. Less obvious is that from the sixth century BC onwards, the Achaemenid kings occupied the luxurious palace rooms of Babylon, their most westerly capital.

The Pergamon Museum has done a great job in rendering the imposing Ishtar Gate, repositioning the original dragons and aurochs (symbolizing the gods Marduk and Adad) in alternating rows and filling up the background with modern blue glazed bricks that blend in very well. Even the original building inscription by Nebuchadnezzar has been artfully inserted. The entire wall is framed with a tasteful mix of original and contemporary yellow bands and sunflowers embossed glazed bricks.

After passing this monumental gate, one arrives on the Procession Way, reproduced over 30 meters and eight meters wide. Initially, this avenue was 250 meters long and 20-24 meters wide, and it is not easy to mentally multiply the length by seven and the width by three to catch the actual immense proportions – a tall order in this confined space. Yet the walls have been faithfully covered with some of the 120 striding lions, dragons, and bulls, including the yellow and black trimmings at the bottom and top with flower motives symbolizing the goddess Ishtar.

Standing here, it is obvious how close Oliver Stone has come to reality when creating Alexander’s triumphal march into Babylon. The Macedonians must have taken the utmost pride in polishing their shields and outfits to look their smartest on this occasion, as they must have been very much aware of what their victory over the Persian Empire meant.

However, although Babylon was firmly in Alexander’s hands, Darius was still on the run further east. This meant that Alexander could not yet take the title of King of Kings, and he settled instead for King of Asia, as he was called throughout the rest of his reign.

Indeed, I consider myself lucky to have seen the precious remains of Babylon in Berlin and those exhibited at the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul, though the latter are much less impressive.

[Bottom picture is from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander]

[Click here to see all my pictures of Babylon from the Museums in Berlin and Istanbul]

Babylon, a victim of war

In nearly all cases, our heritage is suffering from wars, and Babylon is no exception. I already addressed the subject in “Poor Babylon,” and it seems things are slowly moving in the right direction, as the World Monuments Fund (WMF) is currently assisting the Iraqis in restoring their heritage. The WMF and the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) have joined efforts and created a program called The Future of Babylon to preserve Babylon. In the long term, they aim to maintain and inventory the site and its content, and even to build a museum in order to attract tourists.

[From World Monuments Fund].

This historical city has been heavily damaged during the Iraqi War when the American army used the place as a military camp, destroying part of the city in the process. The old paved roads leading to the different city gates have crumbled under the weight of heavy tanks. Much of the rubble (often precious archaeological material) has been used in the construction of airfields for helicopters and parking lots. Smaller archaeological material was also used to fill sandbags. The scanty remains of the Ishtar-Gate (the Gate itself is at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin) have also suffered. Underground or non-exposed pieces may have been damaged by the rolling tanks or leaks of combustibles and chemicals. To be fair, we cannot ignore that under Saddam Hussein, Babylon was not treated with much consideration either; the ruins were not guarded, and the restorations were badly executed.

Babylon definitely deserves a place on the World Heritage List of UNESCO. Although its Hanging Gardens belong to one of the Seven Wonders of the World, the city, strangely enough, has not yet been officially added to this list. WMF is now helping the Iraqis to achieve this goal, although this is quite a challenge since the Iraqi government will have to provide for maintenance, research, and presentation of the site, and that in spite of ongoing internal conflicts and the general unstable situation.

Over the centuries, Babylon has seen many conquerors entering through its city gates. We will remember that this is where King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) wrote the very first laws etched in stone, now one of the proud possessions of the Louvre Museum. This is the place where King Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC), out of love for his homesick wife, built the famous hanging gardens, and where the biblical and historical Tower of Babel ruled over the complex, including the Temple of Ishtar. It is also the site where, from the 6th century BC onwards, the Achaemenid kings lived in their luxurious palaces till in 331 BC, when King Darius III of Persia was defeated by Alexander the Great, who died within its very walls in 323 BC. After his death, Alexander’s kingdom was divided among his generals and successors. Babylon lost its mythical status in the centuries that followed and slid away into the margins of world history. The city was finally rediscovered in the 19th century, but excavations were intermittent and slow due to the instability of Iraq.

I find it heartbreaking to see such a famous and once grand city being neglected while we live in times where modern technology can do miracles, except for stopping the wars and their inconsiderate destruction. Wouldn’t it be wonderful to resuscitate Babylon from the dust and rubble after 2,000 years of neglect and find the very palace room in which Alexander the Great died?

Deir Ezzor on the Euphrates in Syria

Deir Ezzor is one of those cities whose foundations go back to the third millennium BC, the days of King Sargon I, till it fell into the hands of King Hammurabi (reigned 1792 to 1750 BC), followed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, and the Persians. It is located some 450 km northeast of Damascus on the banks of the Euphrates River. 

When Alexander the Great marched through Syria, Deir Ezzor became part of his empire. After his death in 323 BC, the country was ruled by Seleucos, one of his former generals. In Roman times, this green oasis was a crossroad on the trade route that connected the Mediterranean Sea with India. We may not forget to mention Queen Zenobia, who in the third century fervently opposed the Roman presence and occupied the city. 

By the fourth century, Deir Ezzor fell under the rule of Aleppo and afterward became part of the Ayyubid and the Mamluk empires. Tamerlane (read more under the Label Central Asia) and his Mongols totally destroyed Deir Ezzor in 1401, after which the city sank into the desert and disappeared.  

It is only in recent years, when oil was discovered in the region, that Deir Ezzor was revived, and this is what we are seeing today.

The confrontation with the Euphrates River is always an exciting experience. The river was used as a frontier line for eons and still is – in fact, the other side (east) is where Mesopotamia starts. The French, who arrived here at the end of the 19th century, built a narrow suspension bridge, a mini San Francisco Bay bridge, executed by nobody less than engineer Eiffel! Recently, a wider modern bridge has been built for motorized traffic. It is an unforgettable adventure to cross this old bridge on foot, as it is now reserved for pedestrians, and to feel the soft swinging movement caused by our steps. The strong current of the Euphrates is clearly visible from up here, and setting foot on Mesopotamian soil for just a short moment is definitely worth the detour. 

 

This is the story in a nutshell. Unfortunately, no traces have been found of Alexander’s presence here – not yet, at least.

[Click here for more pictures of the cities along the Euphrates]

Poor Babylon

Babylon once hosted one or more of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, when, during its heyday, King Nebuchadnezzar II, out of love for his homesick wife, built the famous hanging gardens. It was here that Hammurabi wrote the very first laws etched in stone and now one of the proud possessions of the Louvre Museum; it is also where the biblical and historical Tower of Babel ruled over the surroundings of the Temple of Ishtar; and where the Achaemenid kings occupied their luxurious palaces till King Darius III of Persia was defeated by Alexander the Great, who died within its very walls.

Babylon, or what is left of it, is located about 90 kilometers south of Baghdad, Iraq, along the banks of the Euphrates River. Today, the remains of this ancient site are in very poor condition, and we are too close to losing it altogether.

Although the first excavations in the Babylon area started in the early 19th century, serious work began towards the end of that century by successive archaeologists from England, Germany, and Italy. Useless to point out that much of the finds are spread between their respective museums. When Saddam Hussein came to power, he wanted to wallow himself in the splendor and fame of this ancient capital, and in 1983, he started to build a city of his own on top of the fragile ruins of the dried brick walls. He inscribed his name in the bricks, just as Nebuchadnezzar had done before him, and as if the damage done to these ancient walls was not enough, he had serious plans to erect a palace of his own atop some other ruins. The outbreak of the Gulf War put an end to this madness, but by then the modern bricks and mortar of Saddam’s megalomania had dangerously damaged the brittle ruins.

After that, in 2003, the coalition forces camped in parts of ancient Babylon’s ten square kilometers for two years. They dug trenches, drove steel stakes into the ancient walls, and built roads, parking lots, and even a helicopter landing pad, bringing further damage to Babylon, including the famous Ishtar Gate and the Procession Way through which Alexander the Great made his triumphal entrance some 2,500 years ago.

Peace has not returned yet. For several years, villagers, invading armies, and fortune seekers plundered whatever they could. An ever-increasing number of people settled in new villages on top of the ruins, and now rising groundwater threatens the ancient walls even further. To make matters worse, the Iraqi oil business is spoiling the precious grounds of this wondrous city, tearing up the soil to lay down their pipelines 1.7 meters deep right next to two other pipelines that were dug under Saddam Hussein. The Ministry of Oil ignored the pleas from their own Iraqi archaeologists, simply stating that they didn’t find any artifacts while digging, as if they were experts in the matter!

Meanwhile, UNESCO has written to the Iraqi authorities to express their concern, and Iraq’s own department of Antiquities has sued the Ministry of Oil demanding the removal of the pipelines. The World Monument Fund, on the other hand, is helping to protect the damaged ruins of Babylon against the rising groundwater, which is caused by new irrigation policies. But overall, the situation is at a standstill since the government of Iraq has decided to suspend its contacts with US universities and institutions that are involved in saving Babylon. Let’s hope that these measures are only temporary and that the ban will soon be lifted.

Today, desolation and destruction are all too evident. Poor Babylon.

[Picture of the map is from NBC News, and the lion picture is from The Australian]