Paphos, the King’s Tombs that belong to no King

One of the most appealing sites of Paphos may well be the so-called “Tombs of the Kings,” although the name is very misleading. No king has ever been buried in any of these underground tombs, but the place is impressive all the same. I stumbled on this peculiar site quite by accident, surprised by the name and location, hardly two kilometers from today’s town of Paphos. 

The “Tombs of the Kings” is an amalgam of underground tombs and burial chambers that create the feeling of a small city – a city of the dead that is. It started to be used as early as the 3rd century BC by Ptolemaic aristocrats and functioned till the 3rd century AD. The burial practice continued into early Christianity when tombs became chapels. Today it has been declared a World Heritage Site. The graves are carved out of solid rock and show a definite Greek, if not Macedonian, influence. The use of this style is not surprising since Cyprus was part of Ptolemy’s heritage after Alexander the Great’s death. The prosperous island (see: Focus on Paphos, Cyprus) was subject to quarrels until the competitive Diadochi finally settled their differences. 

Some tombs appear like miniature houses with a central court surrounded by Doric columns shading frescoed walls. Not all columns are fluted, but the architraves and door lintels often are crowned with the typical frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes, including the regulae and guttae. In the courtyard and corridors walls, we find niches meant to hold the remains of individual corpses. The space in between the niches displays exciting reliefs. It is not difficult to mentally recreate a lively picture of the costly grave goods and jewelry looted in ancient times. Some of these villa-like constructions are rather elaborate, with arched passageways and staircases running up and down. Originally most walls and tombs were covered with stucco and enhanced with frescoes, of which many traces have survived. It was customary to celebrate the anniversaries of the deceased loved ones with a ceremonial meal, sharing the food with the dead. The custom was common in antiquity, but here the practice creates a rather homely feeling. 

One of the tombs has a large block left uncut in the middle of the atrium, creating more niches. Archaeologists have counted 18 burial sites here, all from Hellenistic times, and three of them were still intact. One of these three contained the remains of a child buried in a terracotta pipe, while the two other tombs revealed precious gifts like a gold myrtle wreath and a fine amphora from Rhodes. 

It is a highly unusual site and most definitely worth a visit!

Focus on Paphos, Cyprus

Because of its copper mines, Cyprus occupied a prominent position in the manufacturing of armory, swords, and other objects in bronze since early antiquity (see: The role of Cyprus in Alexander’s campaign). As a result, all through history, many kingdoms and empires wanted to control the island. From Persia, Alexander the Great’s Macedonia, the Roman Empire into the modern dispute between Turkey and Greece, Cyprus was envied and fought over. 

First and foremost, Cyprus is the place where Aphrodite was born, so the legend goes. It is unthinkable to visit the island without stopping at the beach where Aphrodite rose from the sea, a spot that is forever marked by a boulder on the seashore. True or not, it is indeed a lovely place to enjoy by sunset. 

This beach is not far from Paphos, which offers many interesting sites worth visiting, especially since it was the first capital of Cyprus in the 4th century BC. By the time Rome annexed the island in 58 BC, Paphos had kept this privileged status till the successive earthquakes of the 4th century AD had destroyed it. It lost its position as capital, and Salamis replaced it. 

It is not surprising that the city of Paphos is rich with antiquities, although it takes some walking around to find them. 

The Agora, the very heart of ancient Paphos, has not much to offer except some foundations delimiting the open space and the surrounding porticos. The west side is best preserved, and it is here that we find the Odeon, which has undergone some restorations to fit various contemporary cultural events. This meeting place dates from the 2nd century AD. 

The theatre, in turn, was built around 300 BC and remained in use till the end of the 3rd century AD. It had gone through several stages of remodeling and renovation over the centuries and knew its heyday in the 2nd century AD when marble slabs enhanced the stage façade. It could seat as many as 8,000 spectators. Excavations are underway, and new information from the Australian Archaeological Mission may be revealed soon (see: Around the theater of Paphos). 

Most popular is the ancient city proper, with its impressive collection of mosaic floors. They all belong to the villas of those rich and famous Romans living in Paphos between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD. These outstanding mosaics representing scenes from Greek mythology are of much better quality and finesse than what we usually find in Roman art after the second century AD. They were created using a combination of tesserae and glass paste. 

The first villa to encounter is the House of Aion, only partially excavated, but it treats the visitor to a most spectacular floor mosaic from the 4th century. It is divided into several panels and shows The Birth of Dionysus, Leda and the Swan, the beauty contest between Cassiopeia and the Nereids, The Judgment of Marsyas losing the music contest to Apollo, and the Triumph of Dionysus. Every composition deserves our full attention since they are considered one of the most exceptional works of its time. 

The next villa is the House of Theseus, built at the end of the 2nd century AD on top of earlier Hellenistic and Roman buildings. This large villa that remained inhabited till the 7th century counted at least one hundred rooms, leading scholars to believe that this was the residence of the governor of Cyprus. Most of its floors have mosaics with geometric patterns, but three rooms stand out with their human figures. The oldest and most striking mosaic depicts Theseus and the Minotaur in a very recognizable labyrinth with Theseus at its center. It dates from the end of the 3rd/early 4th century AD, with major restorations probably carried out after the repeated earthquakes. The mosaic showing Poseidon and Amphitrite was created about a century later and seemed to belong to a bedroom. At the beginning of the 5th century, the reception area got a new mosaic floor where only Achilles’ first Bath scene survived. Another typical floor has a geometrical pattern with at its center a picture of The Three Horaes, goddesses of the seasons. 

Last but not least, the Villa of Dionysus also dates from the end of the 2nd century AD. The severe earthquakes of the 4th century destroyed it as well as much of Paphos. The construction is Graeco-Roman, with the rooms arranged around a central court. Mosaics in vivid colors cover most of the floors, and one blue vase particularly catches the eye. There are many lovely hunting scenes with tigers, bulls, and boars, and a collection of figures set in round and square frames, and, of course, several mythological figures. 

It is important to mention that Christianity settled in Cyprus in the early 1st century AD. We owe this early date to the Roman governor, Sergius Paulus, who converted to Christianity in Paphos. 

Although of a later date, we cannot miss the remarkable Panagia Chrysopolitissa. This massive basilica with seven naves was built with spolia from earlier buildings destroyed during the earthquakes of 332 and 342 AD. Excavations have revealed several geometric mosaics and remains of columns in different types of marble, including cipolin. Because of Paphos' dwindling population, the basilica was reduced in size at some time during the 6th century. By the 11th century, a small Byzantine church, the Agia Kyriaki, was built in the apse of the old basilica. The small church we see here today dates from around 1500 and still functions as an Anglican Church. Not far from the church, we notice the stub of a column, which reportedly is where St Paul was flogged while on his missionary tour of the island. 

Another intriguing place is a large pistachio tree covered with hundreds of pieces of cloth belonging to Agia Solomoni. The tree is said to be sacred and is still used by those seeking to cure eye problems. This ancient catacomb dates from Hellenistic times. 

In the end, Paphos has much more to offer than one we might expect at first sight. It pays off to venture out and about instead of following the beaten path of organized tours.

About the preservation of mosaics

Mosaics from whatever time period or location always have a lot to tell about customs, religion, and simple daily life, and as such are very valuable testimonies of our past. 

Yet, as soon as the precious tesserae are exposed, the question arises about what to do with the mosaic and about the best way to preserve it. 

The problem was first confronted during the 18^th century when sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum were excavated. In those days, archaeology was not established as a proper science and most of the finds were carried away to be displayed in the mansions of the rich and famous. As a result, the mosaics were taken apart and the most pleasing pictures were framed in simple or elaborate frames. 

As the number of excavations steadily grew in the 19^th and 20^th centuries, archaeology matured equally and it became clear that not all mosaics – and certainly not the larger ones – could be moved for conservation inside a museum. 

Another option was to rebury the mosaics. To this purpose and probably by trial and error, different materials such as soil, gravel, or sand were used to cover the mosaics. The most obvious material was the soil, which was readily available at the excavation site. Besides, it made sense to rebury the mosaics using the same material that had contributed to their survival for many centuries. Nowadays, sand and gravel with or without plastic netting are often implemented all over antique sites. 

I often regret that I cannot actually have a look at those hidden treasures although I totally understand the logic behind this decision. However, standing at the entrance of the Royal Palace in Aegae and not being able to see the large round mosaic of the Tholos or Sanctuary is rather frustrating. In other places, like in Dion, Greece, (see: Dion, the Macedonian Sanctuary), strolling among the remains of Roman houses is not as rewarding as it could be if the many floors were exposed. 

At times, in order to help the visitor visualize the wealth of the mosaics in situ, shelters have been built to protect the precious stones under all circumstances. There are many such cases, such as Pella, Greece, or Nea Paphos in Cyprus. 

In the end, it all depends on the circumstances and the locations where the mosaics are discovered. In Zeugma, Turkey, (see: Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River) even larger floors were removed from the site because the old city was to be flooded after the construction of a dam on the Euphrates. The only way to save what could be saved was to remove the mosaics and shelter them in a newly constructed museum in Gaziantep. 

Mosaic floors that belong to extensive villas are nowadays generally kept intact. A good example is the huge Villa of Piazza Armerina in Sicily (best known for the pictures of the bikini-girls) which has been largely roofed. On other occasions, the entire basement of the villa is cleared and made accessible underground as is the case in Ravenna, Italy. This site, called Tapeti di Pietra (carpets of stone) had been discovered during the construction of a parking lot underneath a modern building. Another similar situation occurred in Antakya, Turkey (see: Antakya’s rich collection of mosaics) where the heavily undulating mosaic floor will be incorporated into the hotel that is under construction. 

It appears that there are many options to safeguard a mosaic floor, all depending on the location and the circumstances in which they are found. Overall, the best and safest conservation choice is the reburial technique. However, this has to be done very carefully and the site must be kept under surveillance. It is sad to find mosaics disintegrating because the layer of sand and gravel is not thick enough and curious or malicious visitors scratch the protection away to expose the mosaics underneath. Many archaeological sites in the Middle East and North Africa are being damaged beyond repair like in Ptolemais, Libya (see: Ptolemais, heritage of the Ptolemies in the Cyrenaica).

Around the theater of Paphos

A team of Australian archaeologists started working at the city’s theater. Their main objective is to place this Hellenistic-Roman theater within the general urban context.

Excavations have exposed a paved road, 8.5 meters wide, immediately south of the theater which served to access the venue. Yet this road also confirmed that the city of Paphos was built according to the typical Hippodamian plan. About 30 granite columns, the tallest of which reached seven meters have been found in the area, confirming the importance of this road. The granite came from the Troad and was widely used by the Romans all around the Mediterranean.

Said theater is considered as being the oldest in Cyprus and was continually used from about 300 BC until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake that occurred in 365 AD. Right next to it a Nymphaeum from the 2^nd century AD has been located as well. 

The Australian project is still on-going, so I do look forward to the next update.