Herodes Atticus, more than a name

Herodes Atticus is best known for his theater at the foot of Athens’ Acropolis. For most people, it is only a name to define this historic monument, forgetting who he was and what he achieved in life.

Herodes Atticus was born in Marathon, Greece, into a family of Athenian descent in 101 AD. He is known as an Athenian rhetorician and a Roman senator, spending time between Greece and Italy.

 

He was exceptionally wealthy and moved in the highest social circles. Emperor Hadrian, for instance, appointed him Prefect of the free cities in the Roman Province of Asia in 125 AD. A good year later, he was elected archon (high magistrate) of Athens. And in 140 AD, Emperor Antoninus Pius invited him to Rome to educate his adopted sons, the future Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. As a Roman citizen, he was appointed Consul of Rome in 143 AD.

 
When he was 40 years old, he married Appia Annia Regilla, a 14-year-old aristocrat related to the family of Antoninus Pius’ wife.
 
Herodes Atticus was a philanthropic magnate and patron of many public works. What comes immediately to mind is the theater in Athens, which he financed in 161 AD to honor his wife, Regilla. Watching a Greek play performed within these walls or attending a popular or classical concert is a gratifying experience!

However, thousands and perhaps even millions of visitors have left their marks on the white marble construction. It calls for an extensive restoration and conservation process that is expected to take at least three years. During that time, the summer Athens Epidaurus Festival will be relocated elsewhere.

 
The overall deterioration consists of cracks in the Pentelic marble due to the variations in temperature and rainwater infiltration. Another problem is the plants that root in crevices and hold water. The theater had been destroyed in 267 AD and was in ruins until the 1950s, when the seating area and orchestra were restored. These repairs are now in dire need of improvement and require a comprehensive conservation plan.
 
The list of buildings Herodes Atticus funded is quite extensive. The ancient Panathenaic Stadium in Athens,  with a capacity of 50,000 seats, for instance, was one of his projects executed in 144 AD. Elsewhere in Greece, we owe him the Theater of Corinth, the Stadium of Delphi, the Baths of Thermopylae, and a splendid Nymphaeum in Olympia.
 
I was very surprised to read Herodes Atticus' name and his wife’s in Olympia. The Nymphaeum stands at the entrance to the Stadium. The two-story-high back wall was filled with statues of Herodes Atticus and several Roman Emperors like Antoninus Pius, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, and their family members. 

Most statues have been moved to the Museum of Olympia. Among them, I noticed Athenais, one of Herodes Atticus’ daughters. She married Lucius Vibullius Rufus, and the couple had six children, but only three survived to adulthood. The eldest daughter, Elpinice, was born in 142 AD and died in 165 AD. The son, Atticus Bradua, was born in 145 AD and was the only child to survive his father. Herodes Atticus was heavily disappointed by his son and left him nothing after his death.

 
Also exhibited in Olympia’s Museum is a life-size bull, which carries an inscription left by Regilla reading: "Regilla, priestess of Demeter offers the water and appendices to Zeus." This brings history to life!
 
Outside Greece, aqueducts donated by Herodes Atticus can be found in Canusium, Puglia region in Italy, and in Alexandria Troas, Asia Minor. In my blog post of February 2024, I mentioned the Baths and Gymnasium of Alexandria Troas built by Herodes Atticus in 135 AD. They were surrounded by vaulted corridors with marble walls, and water was delivered thanks to the aqueducts on the northeast side of town. Most of the building remained intact until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake in the winter of 1809-1810.
 

At the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, I encountered a statue of Polydeukes, also Vibullius Polydeukion, the adopted son of Herodes Atticus, dated to circa 150 AD. Wikipedia, however, mentions the boy as his pupil and lover in a relation resembling that of Hadrian and Antinous. Polydeukes died around 173-174 AD. His loss greatly affected Atticus, who built a Heroon in his memory.

 
Herodes Atticus lived to be 76 years old in 177 AD. Regilla had died in 160 AD, after being brutally kicked in the abdomen while eight months pregnant.  Her brother accused Herodes Atticus of having ordered one of his freedmen to beat her to death. At the trial that ensued, Herodes Atticus was acquitted by Emperor Marcus Aurelius, his former tutor.
 
I’m sure we’ll look at the Theater of Herodes Atticus with different eyes next time we walk through Athens.

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II

(continued from Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I)

At the end of Leptis Magna's Market, the Cardo continues through a rectangular Byzantine city gate to reach the Old Forum resting on Punic remains. 

This Old Forum automatically triggers visions of what may have been visible in Rome! The square is surrounded on all sides by temples, one for every god that matters, it seems. Immediately to the left is a temple that was converted into a church. Clockwise, followed by a portico and altar to Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Liber Pater, the Temple of Augustus and Rome, the Temple of Hercules, and a stele to Caius, son of Hanno. To the right are the Curia and an Old Basilica, in front of which is a small temple to the goddess Cybele. In the middle of this carefully paved Forum is a Baptistery. 

The sand-covered street behind the Old Forum is an invitation to climb to the dune top, where the beautiful deep blue Mediterranean shines as it has done over the centuries. All is calm! 

Today, the Wadi Lebda is only a small river or a dry riverbed, but in its heyday, it was Leptis Magna's harbor, complete with quays and jetties. We can still see the holes into which poles were inserted and used by the ships to tie their anchor ropes. This port was short-lived. The river had been very skillfully diverted, and several dams were built upstream to prevent the sand from siltting up the harbor. However, the harbor mouth was oriented in such a way that the undercurrent from the sea drew the sand in, and the harbor silted up anyway. Surprisingly, great master builders like the Romans could make such a mistake! 

Yet, this port appears as if it could be used again once the harbor is filled with water! The quay follows the river's course with a curvature towards the sea. There are also downward steps at regular intervals to enable the loading and unloading of the ships. At the head of the peninsula stood a lighthouse. 

In the days of Septimius Severus, an impressive colonnaded street, 420 meters long, ran parallel to the Wadi Lebda from the city center down to Leptis Magna's harbor. 

This Via Colonnata was 40 meters wide and paved with white marble slabs. It was flanked on both sides by a ten-meter-wide portico, reducing the central avenue to 20 meters. The Stoas were supported by 125 grey-green cipollino columns resting on a white marble base and crowned with white marble Pergamese capitals. The red-tiled roofs provided shade in summer and protected the citizens from the rain in winter. It must have been a sight for sore eyes! 

What remains today is a non-inspiring dirt road with bits of columns and carved stones. But the side street provides a helpful visual tool as half a dozen similar cipollino columns still stand tall. 

Behind these columns rises the high outside wall of the Severan Basilica, built by Septimius Severus and completed by his son, Caracalla, in 216 AD. This two-story monument measures 92x40 meters. The hall is crowded with two rows of two-story monolithic columns made of red Aswan granite set on white marble bases and carrying white marble Corinthian capitals. 

Like all Basilicas, this was originally a court of law converted into a church in Byzantine times. Quite unique in the present case is an apse at each end. Both apses are framed by white marble pilasters and half-columns decorated with high reliefs of plants and animals. On the north side are carved figures of Dionysus with satyrs and Maenads, whereas the south side shows the Twelve Labors of Hercules. On a sunny day, the depth of the skilled artwork really shows. In the middle of the apses are two substantial red granite columns with white marble Corinthian capitals topped with griffons that supported the roof. Like all other buildings in Leptis Magna, the walls were constructed using local limestone that was readily available. The roof would be made of wood. There may well have been windows underneath that roof to let the daylight in. At the center of the Basilica, there is also a kind of pulpit that is only partly visible. In an adjacent room on the south side of the Basilica, the Byzantines built a cruciform Baptistery. 

This Basilica is another illustration of the glory of Rome, considering its size, the use of precious marble and granite, and the craftsmanship of the details, of which there are many. 

The Basilica's west side corresponds to the Imperial Forum's short side, the Forum Novum Severianum, a gigantic square of 60x100 meters. The high walls of the surrounding buildings accentuate the size. Originally, a portico ran around the Forum, supported by Pergamese columns as found on the Via Colonnata. They are only visible on the Basilica side, where part of the portico is occupied by a row of shops. 

The beauty of this Imperial Forum may be found among the arches that span the top space between the columns. The area above each column and between the arches is filled with roundels depicting reliefs of the head of Medusa or a Nereid. A row of arches has been reconstructed on the left (long) side of the Forum, resting on Pergamese capitals. In total, at least 73 of these large medallions have been found. All Medusa heads are different and look at you from deeply furrowed eyebrows. A Nereid head is clearly placed at the end of the row. 

Opposite the Basilica on this same Forum stood the Temple of the Gens Septimia, dedicated to the worship of the Septimius family. It is said to have been built following the typical Roman pattern, high on top of a podium, and decorated with columns of red Aswan granite. No wonder this Forum is meant to be a replica of Trajan's in Rome. Septimius Severus' message was clear: his native city could not be inferior to Rome! 

I arrive at the other end of the Via Colonnata, in a vast oval square originally surrounded by the 72 columns of the Stoa. Overlooking this space stood a Nymphaeum several levels high. The back wall was entirely covered with marble, and the many niches were decorated with the most graceful statues. In and around the fountain stood many columns and other marble artifacts. The large water basin that ran alongside the street had several fountains. The scant remains still testify to the monumentality of this construction. 

Opposite the Nymphaeum is the empty space of an unpaved Gymnasium. The adjacent Baths of Hadrian skillfully fill the area towards the Wadi Lebda and the Nymphaeum. 

Those who have seen the Baths of Caracalla in Rome will recognize the sense of grandeur, although the remains of these thick walls are less telling. The bathing areas themselves, however, are better preserved: the Frigidarium, Tepidarium, and Caldarium, all carefully lined with white marble. Unique are the two Sudatoria connected to the Caldarium. This was a kind of sauna where pipes distributed the heat along the walls and under the floor. The complex also had two pools with adjoining latrines, and the pavement consisted of large white marble tiles. 

Unlike Roman constructions elsewhere made with bricks, the local limestone of Leptis Magna was also used for these Baths. Another striking feature is the porches on either side of the Tepidarium, where the sloping walls ensured more efficient air circulation and ventilation. Most statues from these Baths have been moved to the Museum in Tripoli – worth a visit of its own! 

[Read more at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion]

Ways to preserve mosaics

Most archaeological sites we can visit nowadays date from Roman times. In the 2nd century AD, Rome reached its apogee under the reign of the five "good" emperors: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. They constructed monumental public buildings, and the houses of the Roman citizens were also lavishly decorated, often with frescoed walls and telling mosaic floors. 

The best-known examples are the houses and villas in and around Pompeii and Herculaneum. Still, many sites in Greece (like Pella and Vergina) and Turkey (like Ephesos and Sagalassos) also treasure such striking walls and floors. 

Some mosaic floors are left in situ where they rightfully belong, in which case they need to be protected from the elements. Shelters for this purpose are then constructed. However, even these shelters need to be maintained, which is not always the case. 

Another way of protection is to cover the mosaics with a tarp held in place with a layer of gravel. This procedure requires less maintenance as only the edges have to be checked. Many curious visitors will be tempted to push the tarp and the gravel aside to look underneath. The mosaic floors are "eaten" away from the fringes without careful and repeated care. 

Anyway, this manner of preservation is a favorite among archaeologists because it requires little or no maintenance. However, plants' roots may damage and displace the tiny tesserae. 

The most appropriate way to save a mosaic is to remove it from its spot and entrust it to the care of a museum, where it hopefully will be on display. 

Such removal is very time-consuming and expensive, as the top layer of the tesserae has to be detached from the existing floor in one piece. For this purpose, archaeologists use a large wooden cylinder around which the mosaic is rolled face down. A facing of two layers of fabric and an adhesive is applied to prevent losing tesserae or damaging the surface during this tricky operation. The entire mosaic floor can then be moved to its new location using a panel of aluminum honeycomb and resin, following the most recent techniques. 

When strolling through a museum, the visitor is seldom aware of the effort and delicate work involved in displaying the mosaics for us to enjoy. We'd better take a closer look next time we visit a museum!

First contacts with China

It is generally not mentioned that in the wake of Alexander's expansion, an opening towards China, or Seres as Strabo called the country, was created to the east of Central Asia. After all, in 329 BC, the king founded the city of Alexandria Eschate (very appropriately being Alexandria the Furthest), the later Khojend in modern Tajikistan, where he stopped his march eastwards. 

His Greek settlers in Central Asia were there to stay for the next three hundred years as Seleucos established his Empire, which later became the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. Over time, their kings steadily expanded their power further to the east, and the main force appeared to be King Euthydemus (230-200 BC). This Euthydemus was born in Magnesia, Asia Minor as the son of the Greek general Apollodotus. By 209 BC, as Graeco-Bactria king, he withstood the three-year-long siege of Bactra led by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III. In the end, Antiochus offered one of his daughters in marriage to Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, in exchange for which he received several Indian war elephants. 

Once well settled, Euthydemus went to the lands beyond Alexandria Eschate. As reported by Strabo, he even reached Kashgar in the region of Xinjiang. This may date the first Western and China exchanges to around 200 BC. 

How China looked at the West is a much lesser-known story. Not unlike the Greeks, the Chinese held that they were the center of world civilization and that all other countries were tributaries of China. This implies that the campaign of Euthydemus may have been a significant turning point (see also: Alexander's influence reached all the way to China?)

Around 130 BC, embassies of the Han Dynasty traveled to Central Asia as the Chinese emperor Wudi was interested in the sophisticated civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria, and Parthia, respectively known to the Chinese as Dayuan, Daxia, and Anxi. Since then, numerous embassies left every year to these countries, where they found people living in fixed homes and interested in the rich produce of China. Chinese records reveal that more than ten such missions were dispatched into Parthia, Seleucid Syria (known as Lijian), Chaldea (Tiaozhi), and north-western India (Tianzhu). Allegedly, they even visited Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and it seems hard to imagine Chinese envoys walking in the streets of Rome! 

Roman soldiers also made their way east, although not out of their free will. It has been documented that soldiers captured by the Parthians were dispatched to defend their eastern borders. In 54 BC, Pliny mentioned that after the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC (see: Harran, better known under its Roman name Carrhae), the Parthians sent some 10,000 prisoners to Margiana to man the frontier. Chinese sources report that these soldiers had blond hair and blue eyes. Eventually, these troops were captured by the Chinese to founding the city of Liqian or Li-Chien – a transliteration of Alexandria - it seems, in the region of Gansu in western China. Several inscriptions discovered in the Kara-Kamar caves on the border between eastern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were written in Bactrian, Greek, Arabic, and Latin. The latter was composed of three lines and was left by the Roman soldiers of the Pannonian Legio XV Apollinaris around the 2^nd century AD. Notably, this cave complex showed remarkable similarities with temples dedicated to the god Mithras, who was featured in killing the bull. This secret male cult started about the 1^st century AD and soon spread with the legionnaires over the entire Roman Empire. 

By the first century BC, Rome started showing serious interest in the precious silk it received through trade with the Parthians. Wearing silk soon exploded, but it was not met with overall approval. Seneca (3 BC-65 AD) complained that silk did not hide the body, not "even one's decency." This led the Senate to issue an edict prohibiting silk-wearing, which the wealthy Roman elite liked to ignore. Besides the moral ground, this edict also had an economic reason, as importing silk caused a massive outflow of gold. 

Yet, business is business, and the trade prospered. Over land, using the Silk Road was a tedious and expensive operation, which was soon to be supplanted by a newly found maritime route. The ships would sail from China, stopping at ports in modern Vietnam, India, and Sri Lanka controlled by the Chinese emperors. The western end of this business route, with stopovers in Egypt and the Nabataean territories, was controlled by Rome. Their merchants traveled on Roman, Indian, and even Chinese ships. 

Best known from this period is the campaign led by the Chinese general Ban Chao, who in 97 AD crossed the Pamir Mountains with an army of 70,000 men to fight the Xiongnu, generally the people living in Central Asia. He even reached the Caspian Sea and the lands occupied by the Parthians. From here, the general sent an envoy to Dagin (Rome). Ultimately, this was Gan Ying, who stopped in Mesopotamia although he intended to sail to Rome via the Black Sea. The Parthian merchants wishing to safeguard their profitable position as the middleman between Rome and China, told Gan Ying that his planned trip would take him two years. In reality, this was two months. This is why the envoy decided to abandon his mission and return home. His merit, to a certain extent at least, was his account of Rome and Emperor Nerva, which he obviously based on second-hand information. However, he correctly reported that Rome was the leading economic power at the western end of Eurasia. The Chinese army settled for an alliance with the Parthians. 

The earliest documented Roman embassy to arrive in China dates to 166 AD. Chinese sources mention that it came from Antun (Antoninus Pius), king of Dagin (Rome). This information must be clarified since Antoninus Pius died five years before, in 161 AD. It is suggested that they meant Marcus Aurelius, who added the name of his predecessor to his own; he came to power in 166 AD. 

This Roman delegation probably arrived by sea and carried presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shells originating from Southern Asia. More important, however, is that the Chinese acquired a treatise on astronomy. Roman cartographers knew of the existence of China since the country was mentioned on the map by Claudius Ptolemy in about 150 AD. The booming trade across the Indian Ocean in the 2^nd century AD enabled the identification of Roman outposts in India and Sri Lanka. 

After a lacuna about further exchanges, the next documented account emerged in the 3^rd century AD when the Roman Emperor (possibly Alexander Severus) sent presents of colored glass to Emperor Taitsu of the Kingdom of Wei (reigned 227-239 AD) in Northern China. The last record about an embassy from Rome dates from 284 AD when the envoys of presumably Emperor Carus (282-283 AD) brought "tribute" to the Chinese Empire. 

To summarize, contact between our western world and China lasted at least six hundred years after Alexander opened access to Central Asia. In all its aspects, the Silk Road sank into oblivion until Marco Polo revived this part of history in the 13^th century, i.e., one thousand years later!

About Sabratha (Libya)

Sabratha is the lesser-known city of the Roman Tripolitania after Oea (Tripoli) and Leptis Magna, but it is the only one that has remains from Punic occupations to show.

It is a strange and bizarre monument labeled as a Punic Mausoleum. I have never seen any building from that era and have nothing to compare it with. We owe this reconstruction to the Italians who worked here in the days of Mussolini. To recover the elements, they had to demolish a section of the Byzantine city wall and houses of a later date. The monument may be inspired by the Libyan-Numidian Mausoleum of Duga in modern Tunisia, which is, however, a square building.

The Mausoleum of Sabratha stands 23 meters high and ends in a turret that is missing its tip. It is resting on a triangular base. The Punic construction collapsed during the earthquakes that occurred in the 4th century AD. The debris was then readily used by the Byzantines to build the city walls and reconstruct some houses.

How the Italian archaeologists have been able to sort out the parts belonging to the Punic Mausoleum seems a near-impossible task. To me, this monument is a jumbled mixture of Egyptian and Greek symbols (in the friezes above the columns) where the Egyptian god Bes is depicted taming the lions, while Heracles is attacking the lions in a very Greek fashion. Both gods are known for helping to overcome death in order to guarantee eternal life. The three consoles supposedly held 3-meter-high statues of Greek kouroi. Initially, the entire mausoleum was coated with a layer of red and blue stucco, making it an unmistakable landmark in the middle of the old city.

The eye-catcher in Sabratha nowadays is its imposing theater that is said to be the largest in Roman Africa. It was built in the 3rd century AD using local stone, and it was decorated with black and white marble columns as well as cipolin marble. The capitals were quite unique, often enhanced with masks or faces.

It is, however, exciting to access this theater through the artists' entrance for I had no idea such a thing existed in antiquity. These are large rooms with colorful marble floors and walls. From here, the artists could immediately enter the now wooden stage that is 40 meters wide. It is a treat to walk in their footsteps and to look into the theater from their point of view. The high skene is three stories tall. It is said that 96 of the original columns have been put back into place, but I am not exactly charmed by the quality of this restoration. 

The ledge of the first floor once held an inscription of which, strangely enough, only the word “lacuna” has survived. The theory goes that this is what remains of “lacunaria,” referring to the wooden overhang that covered the podium to increase its acoustics. The edge of the podium facing the public is decorated with marble reliefs displaying theater masks for comedies and tragedies, two philosophers in an intimate discussion, and a dancing girl wrapped in a whirling tunica.

When the restoration work was completed in 1937, the theater was inaugurated with due pomp and circumstance by Mussolini, who personally attended the performance of Antigone by Sophocles. Walking through the vaults and corridors gives at least an inkling of the logistics involved. It is a unique way to sniff the atmosphere from times past. From the top tiers of seats, I am rewarded with a panoramic view of the ancient city and today’s harbor.

Like the theater, most buildings in Sabratha were constructed using the local yellow sandstone that is readily available. These stones were covered with stucco that was painted afterward. In the glory days of the Roman occupation, the stucco was replaced by more precious marble slabs.

Near the beach stands a temple dedicated to Isis, an eastern cult that was popular among the Romans. The goddess was depicted with a headdress of bent cow horns framing a solar disk. This temple was built under Emperor Augustus and was enlarged in 69-79 AD by Vespasian. The main entrance was facing east, where an ample colonnaded space opened toward the sea. All we see today are the steps to this entrance and a few rooms in the back of the temple for the worship of other gods. Archaeologists have, however, managed to re-erect six columns that serve as a lonely beacon. Nothing much remains of the original cella that held the cult statue of Isis, and the layout is otherwise rather puzzling.

Nearby is another temple from the 2nd century AD with no name. It may have been kept anonymous on purpose to serve the seafarers from the entire Mediterranean to worship their own gods. Most of the building stones have sadly been removed to be re-used elsewhere.

The Forum looks like a construction site with lots of rubble and piles of stones that seem to belong to different temples and other official buildings. A key position is occupied by the remains of a temple dedicated to Antoninus Pius and his family. Across lies a Basilica whose entrance is framed with pillars decorated with vines intertwined with the now-vanished silphium plant. It should be noted that silphium was by far the largest export product of North Africa - the only place in the world where this plant could be found, and now disappeared entirely. It was a natural medicine, a contraceptive, and an aphrodisiac that was in high demand, especially in Rome. It was an efficient remedy against cough, fever, indigestion, wards, and all kinds of other ailments – in fact, the aspirin of antiquity. I find it quite exciting to see traces of this unique plant.

Also recognizable is the Curia from the 4th century AD, i.e., the meeting room for the state council in which the people of Sabratha with the highest incomes could have a seat and their say. Then as now, money meant power, and we should not forget that it was the rich who took care of the maintenance of the streets, water pipes and conduits, bathhouses, and other public facilities of the city.

Between this Curia and the sea, I find the well-known Basilica of Justinian, a Byzantine church from the 6th century AD, which, unfortunately, was entirely dismantled by the archaeologists in the 1920s simply because they underestimated its value. The mosaic floors, however, have been saved and were moved to the local museum (see: Sabratha, an old Phoenician colony in North Africa).

Strolling further, I reach the street of the olive oil traders where several presses are still in situ. The inside of the successive basins was coated with waterproof stucco to make sure they saved the oil to the last drop.

Further down are the Baths of Oceanus or Neptune, displaying a significant number of mosaics. The most beautiful picture is that of Oceanus, now at the museum. That precaution is not exaggerated because these mosaics are not protected, and everybody can walk freely over them. What a shame! 

My travel experience through Libya dates from before the outbreak of the Arab Spring, and even then, I felt sorry that Libya had not taken better care of its archaeological heritage. The situation after the capture and execution of Muammar Gaddafi has gone from bad to worse. I honestly fear that many sites that have been unearthed so carefully are no longer cared for and are now left for grabs (see: Still hope, though scant, for Libya’s heritage).

Time to Honor Emperor Hadrian

Emperor Hadrian was a world traveler in the modern sense of the word. He understood Public Relations like no other and made sure all his subjects knew him, whether in the Far East or in remote Britain, where he left his “Hadrian Wall.” He was very much appreciated also since so many cities built arches in his honor and dedicated temples and baths to him. A rare exception on my traveling through Albania, where I found no trace of him. Strange, to say the least!

Hadrian was born in 76 AD and died in 138 AD after having reigned over the Roman Empire for twenty-one years. He belongs to the category of the five “good emperors,” joining ranks with Nerva, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Antoninus Pius. More importantly, he ruled at the height of Roman power in the middle of the Pax Romana, which started under Augustus in 27 BC and ended in 180 AD. This Pax Romana, a two hundred years-long peace period, was mainly due to Alexander the Great – a generally overlooked detail. Through his two years of fierce guerilla wars in Sogdiana and Bactria from 229 to 227 BC, Alexander had scared the hell out of the Scythian tribes on the northern frontiers of Central Asia to such an extent that they did not dare interfere with the Roman occupation in the following centuries.

Hadrian comes to me as a good-natured and friendly person who likes his contact with people. He is known to be generous to the soldiers under his command, making sure they were properly garrisoned; additionally, he implemented many military reforms and built appropriate forts. The emperor was on good terms with the civilians of the cities he visited and is said to have defended the weaker population against the empowered ones, which may be why he was so popular. He loved everything that was Greek, and that included his beautiful lover Antinous. He sought to make Athens the cultural capital of his empire, and he ordered the construction of many buildings all over the city for this purpose. Best known is probably his arch in the center of Athens carrying two typical inscriptions reading on one side. Here starts the city of Hadrian and on the other, Here ends the city of Hadrian. Athens, in turn, honored the emperor with a bronze statue at the Theatre of Dionysus. According to Pausanias, Hadrian also built a gymnasium with columns of Libyan marble, a Temple of Hera, an extensive Library, and a Pantheon dedicated to all the gods. We still can admire his life-size statue at the very heart of the Greek Agora. Another noteworthy feature of Hadrian’s legacy is the vaulted Eridanos River exposed during the metro construction works at the Monastiraki station.

This emperor is also remembered for his generosity and fairness, for changing the law to make sentences more humane and honest. In Rome, he restored many buildings, including the Pantheon, and allowed himself the luxurious Villa Hadriana at Tivoli, which he furnished with the most beautiful Greek statues he could find; if not the originals, then the best copies would do. During his travels, he often implemented public works projects and granted Latin rights to many communities.

Nothing much has transpired from his personal life except his affair with the gorgeous Antinous (when you see the very recognizable Antinous in a museum, you can be sure that Hadrian is not far off). Whatever his relationship with his wife Sabina was, she is often represented at his side. One such case that springs to my mind is Andriake, the harbor of Myra, where a bust of the couple enhances the entrance to the granary.

According to the latest news, the city of Antalya is renewing its appreciation for Hadrian by cleaning up the area around the gate built in his honor in 130 AD, known locally as the “Three Doors.” They are planning rather fancy landscaping with lighting in the shape of the sun. The project is not too clear, but it is nice to hear that this impressive city gate will gain prestige after many centuries of abandonment.