Abukir, including Canopus and Thonis-Heracleion

The waters along the Egyptian Coast hold a treasure trove of statues, columns, reliefs, and other architectural elements. Flooded ancient city streets with their temples, abandoned harbors and wooden ships yield a great number of surprises. 

Centuries before the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, the Greeks had established trade centers in Egypt. The oldest was Thonis-Heracleion in the 8^th century BC (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt), located six kilometers northeast of Abukir. Canopus was first mentioned in the 6^th century BC and lies right next to Abukir, nowadays on the edge of modern Alexandria. 

Since 1992, underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio has been investigating the larger area of the Bay of Abukir together with the Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities. In 2000, thanks to his advanced sonar and magnetic scanning technology, he discovered Thonis-Heracleion and Canopus (see: Getting around in the Nile Delta). He has founded the Institut Européen d’Archéologie Sous-Marine (IEASM) and works closely with a team of archaeologists, Egyptologists, historians, geologists, geophysicists, computer engineers, and the like. He regularly shares his finds on his own website, which contains a wonderful page with pictures of his discoveries. Clicking on a picture reveals the full story of the artifact. 

[Picture from Egypt Museum by Jean-Pierre Dalbéra] 

My absolute favorite is this stunning statue, representing Queen Arsinoe II, the sister-wife of King Ptolemy II, that was discovered in the flooded ruins of Canopus.

The queen’s portrayal here is more Greek than Egyptian. She is the embodiment of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, especially thanks to the “wet look” of her dress clinging to her body. After Arsinoe died in 270 BC, Ptolemy II issued a decree that all temples of Egypt should host a cult statue of the divine Arsinoe. So much to honor one’s spouse! 

But, of course, you are free to pick your own preference and learn more about the great work done by Franck Goddio all those years. There is more than enough for future generations to discover under the sandy bottom of Abukir’s Bay.

Alexandria’s Graeco-Roman Museum finally reopens

We are all familiar with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which holds many treasures from the Egyptian dynasties, including the world-famous gold mask of Tutankhamun. 

However, few people are aware of the Graeco-Roman Museum with its 40,000 artifacts from the Greek and Roman eras. It has been closed since 2005 for renovation and finally reopened. It covers artwork from before the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander in 331 BC, the ensuing Ptolemaic Dynasty that ended with Cleopatra in 30 BC, and the Roman occupation up to the Muslim conquest of 641 AD. 

The newly arranged collection is presented in an up-to-date manner, as shown in this short video.

The most recent statues and artifacts to enter this museum are those recovered by Franck Goddio and his team during underwater excavations in the broad Nile estuary, particularly from Thonis-Heracleion. 

Noteworthy is, for instance, the stele discovered at Thonis-Heracleion in 2000, displayed next to its twin, uncovered in Naucratis in 1899. It is quite unique to find two identical inscriptions holding a decree of Nectanebo I. They state that the pharaoh raised subsidies for the temple using the taxes levied from Greek trade and manufacturing in Thonis and Naucratis. The steles also confirm that Thonis and Heracleion were respectively the Egyptian and the Greek names for the same town “at the entrance of the sea of the Greeks”. 

Another striking addition from Thonis-Heracleion is the statue of a Ptolemaic queen, 2.20 meters high, made of black granodiorite and dated to the 2^nd century BC. It is attributed to either Cleopatra Selene II (185-180) or Cleopatra III (116-115 BC) and is executed in a mix of Greek and Egyptian styles. Alternatively, it could represent Cleopatra Thea, the queen consort of three Syrian kings of the Seleucid Empire between 150 and 125 BC. 

A new acquisition of the Graeco-Roman Museum is the so-called Neilos-bust, an astonishingly well-preserved rendition of the god of the Nile in greywacke (a variety of hard sandstone). It was found in the temple area of the Nile’s Canopus. 

In-depth research by Franck Goddio revealed that Graeco-Egyptian statues in this dark Egyptian stone were probably made in specialist workshops in Alexandria. The Nile bust is of particularly high-quality greywacke. 

Of an entirely different order is the Naos of the Decades, a small chapel-like shrine for statues of the divinities at the most sacred place of the temple. During Franck Goddio’s underwater exploration of the Bay of Abukir, he discovered walls of this exceptional naos, parts of which were already at the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria and the Louvre in Paris. 

The Naos of the Decades was a shrine to Shu, the god of air, which predated the Ptolemaic era by more than fifty years. The most remarkable feature may well be the calendar engraved on the outside surfaces of its walls. The Egyptians divided the year into sections of ten days or decades, 36 in all - represented here by 36 squares - making a total of 360 days. A 37^th square was added for the five days to complete the year. Each square showed a text of an astrological nature about the influence of the stars and Shu on daily life during the specific period of ten days. One such text tells how Shu created the sky and the stars and placed himself between the sky and the earth to separate them. 

The Greek sphere of influence did not die with Alexander. In the first stage, it lived on as Hellenism from the Mediterranean to India, after which Greek art and customs gradually fused and mixed with those of the newly formed kingdoms and civilizations. In Egypt, Hellenism officially ended with the death of Cleopatra, when many concepts and ideas were continued by the Romans. The Parthian and Bactrian Kings did the same in the East. Greek remained the lingua franca in antiquity and helped to spread Christianity until the Islamic conquest in the 7^th century AD took over.

[Pictures from Franck Goddio's site]

Two temples identified in Thonis-Heracleion

It is noteworthy to realize that underwater archaeology is a very recent discipline. It started seriously in the 1960s, and the techniques and equipment have grown and improved considerably since. 

Although Thonis-Heracleion was mentioned by Herodotus and Strabo, its location at Abukir Bay in the Nile Delta remained unknown until its discovery in 2000. Since then, much of the port has been mapped (see: Heracleion, an ancient Greek port in Egypt). A variety of ships in all shapes and sizes have been located, as well as hundreds of anchors. 

In my earlier post, Remains of an almost unique warship discovered in Thonis-Heracleion, I spoke about an ancient Greek warship discovered beneath the rubble of a temple destroyed by an earthquake in the 2^nd century BC. As a result, the ship sank into the muddy seabed, which contributed to its preservation. It could be established that the 25-meter-long ship was built in Egypt using both Egyptian and Greek techniques. 

By now, it has been established that this temple was dedicated to the god Amon-Gereb, who played a key role in the continuity of the pharaohs’ dynasty. It was here in Thonis-Heracleion that Ptolemaic rulers were confirmed and legitimized in their power. The temple was part of a large sanctuary that covered an area of more than 3 hectares, surrounded by walls made of limestone blocks. Remarkably, the naos of the temple was built using red granite, which automatically linked it to Amon-Gereb, the supreme god of Egypt in the 6^th-4^th centuries BC. 

The cult of Amon-Gereb was already known from the Royal Decree of Canopus established by Ptolemy III Euvergetes in 238 BC. From its Greek version, we learn that every year a statue of Osiris was carried in his sacred boat from this sanctuary in Heracleion to his temple in Canopus. The Decree also mentions the temple of Amon-Gereb.

The research, which started in 2019, revealed countless artifacts ranging from statues to gold jewelry like the eye of Horus, earrings in the shape of a lion’s head, silver ritual phiales, a bronze jug, and alabaster bottles for perfumes and ointments. Also, a more than six-meter-high stele from the reign of Ptolemy VIII that stood near the Temple of Amon-Gereb has been found in several pieces and is much eroded. Because of its condition, it could be only partially deciphered. 

Three colossal statues of a royal couple in pink granite, a five-meter-tall god of fertility, and the Nile flood were retrieved. The statues of the Ptolemaic rulers are the best preserved so far. 

In 2023, a temple of Aphrodite was also discovered, and remains of some buildings supported by preserved wooden beams dating from the 5^th century BC. It is not surprising to read that bronze and ceramic artifacts of Greek origin were found. 

The Temple of Amon disappeared in the 2^nd century BC, and the city of Heracleion vanished in the 8^th century AD after surviving years of earthquakes and land liquefaction caused by tidal waves. Until now, it is estimated that only five percent of the city’s surface has been discovered. 

For more information and pictures as used above, please visit the website of Franck Goddio.

Getting around in the Nile Delta

Speaking of the Nile Delta, we obviously mean the embouchure of the river Nile where its waters mingle with those of the Mediterranean Sea. 

The problem, however, is to picture the ancient cities and harbors along that coastline. There are several elements to be taken into account. 

Historically, we best know the role played by Alexandria and Pelusium, situated on opposite sides of the Delta, roughly 250 kilometers apart. 

[From Pinterest]

Pelusium, about 30 kilometers south of modern Port Said, was looking to the East. This city was the entrance gate for conquerors coming from the east. Alexander entered Egypt through Pelusium, as did the Hittites and Persians before him. For the Egyptian pharaohs, it was their gateway to the lands on the eastern Mediterranean. The city played an essential role as a transit station for the goods coming from and going to the lands around the Red Sea (see: The fame of elusive Pelusium). 

Alexander founded Alexandria after he returned from visiting the oracle in Siwah. It arose on the most westerly end of the Delta, on the Canopic Branch of the Nile. The city was intentionally oriented towards Crete and Greece, creating a close trading route with its homeland.

The Greeks had already established thriving trade emporiums in the area. Best known is Naucratis, settled as early as the 7th century BC (see: Egypt, land of the free for ancient Greeks?) As mighty Egypt allowed them to operate a lucrative business, even granting them special privileges, Naucratis eventually became a melting pot of Greek and Egyptian art and culture where they lived in harmony with each other. In its heyday, it was home to at least 16,000 people who appear to have lived in high-rise buildings three to six floors high, not unlike the mud-brick houses we encounter today in Yemen. 

Archaeological research has found proof that the Canopic Branch of the Nile was navigable all the way down to the heart of the city. However, Herodotus gave us the impression that the freight from the ships arriving from the Mediterranean was to be transshipped into barges which would sail to reach Naucratis (see: An update about Naucratis). 

A look at the above map illustrates that vessels heading for the harbor of Naucratis had to sail an extra distance from the Mediterranean. Alexandria was obviously more accessible. 

[Mosaic from Madaba, Jordan, showing the Nile with Pelusium]

Another major port was Heracleion, which the ancient Egyptians called Thonis, founded back in the 8th century BC. Known more commonly as Thonis-Heracleion, the site has been discovered under ten meters of mud near modern Abukir Bay (see: Heracleion, an ancient Greek port in Egypt, and Underwater excavation at Heracleion still ongoing). The above map shows Thonis/Thanis on a more easterly branch of the Nile, closer to Pelusium. Recent excavations have exposed 64 ancient, beautifully preserved shipwrecks and more than 700 anchors. Heracleion reached its peak between the 6th and the 4th century BC. 

Halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, Ptolemy II Philadelphus founded Taposiris Magna around 280-270 BC. The harbor played a significant role in the trading route for the goods from the east arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from the Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). Alexandria, built on the headland between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis, claimed taxes on the goods that transited through the city until the 7th century AD at least (see: Taposiris Magna in Egypt). 

The Egyptians founded the city of Marea, as highlighted on the map, in the 7^th century BC. It actually lies on the southern shore of Lake Mareotis, modern Lake Maryut, and 45 kilometers southwest of Alexandria. Speaking of strategic locations! 

The last major city in the Nile Delta is Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, which Alexander saw in full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks (see: Buried secrets of Heliopolis)! 

This religious center was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks, like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon, consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. 

For centuries, every single Pharaoh made it to the sacred city of Heliopolis, where the gods would confer their power. When Alexander, who fully understood the importance of this ritual, followed suit, he was accepted by the Egyptians as their new Pharaoh.

Remains of an almost unique warship discovered in Thonis-Heracleion

In an earlier blog (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt), I summarized the outcome of years of underwater excavations at the modern site of Abukir Bay, roughly 37 kiometers east of Alexandria. The city reached its peak between the 6th and the 4th century BC. 

By 2019, excavations exposed 70 ancient shipwrecks (see: A unique Egyptian baris found at Thonis-Heracleion). We should remember that pending the completion of Alexander’s Alexandria, which started in 331 BC, Thonis-Heracleion was the largest harbor in Egypt. 

[A diver examines the remains of an ancient military vessel discovered in the Mediterranean sunken city of Thonis-Heracleion off the coast of Alexandria, Egypt. Reuters]

Today, the city made headlines once again as the remains of an ancient Greek warship were exposed. They have been dated to the 2^nd century BC, i.e., in Ptolemaic times. This find is almost unique because until now, only one other warship from this period exists. It is a Punic ship called Marsala found in western Sicily. 

The warship was discovered beneath the remains of a funerary temple from the 4th century BC. Archaeologists have established that the temple was destroyed by a strong earthquake in the 2nd century BC. As a result, the building blocks of this sanctuary fell on the warship, which sank into the muddy seabed. This muddy bottom solidified, and, in the process, it contributed to preserving the ship. 

Despite the damage caused by the crumbling temple, a preliminary study helped to determine that the vessel was approximately 25 meters long. Based on the wood and shipbuilding fashion, the study also revealed that the ship was built in Egypt using a mixture of Greek and Egyptian techniques and decoration styles. 

[Picture from the National News]

The solid layer of mud also yielded some artifacts and bits of stone and rubble from the temple as it collapsed. 

Year after year, the submerged port of Thonis-Heracleion exposes ever more secrets buried for twenty centuries. With each and every archaeological investigation, we obtain a closer view of how this coastline looked in Alexander’s day before he opted to build an entirely new harbor that still exists today.

Birthday wishes

Dear Alexander, 

Wouldn’t it be great if this year you received a gold medallion for your birthday like those made by Roman admirers some five hundred years after your death? The “Alexander cult” was still very much alive at that time when able craftsmen created such marvelous works of art. 

This gem was part of the Abukir Medallions made in Roman times between 215 and 243 AD. The obverse shows your familiar effigy with ram’s horns looking slightly upwards. The reverse displays this splendid Nike in full action as she holds the reins of the quadriga in one hand and a palm branch and a headband in the other. For the unbelievers, there is an inscription that reads ΒΑCΙΛ-ΕωC /ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ – in other words, Basileus Alexandrou. With a diameter of 5.4 cm, it weighs nearly 113 grams. Isn’t this medallion genuinely worthy of you and your accomplishments? 

How many more medallions and remembrance coins must have been issued by you to underscore the merit of your men! How many must have been distributed by your successors and by famous and less famous admirers! Sadly, so many have been lost in time. 

With gratitude for the immense heritage you left us,

Argyraspid and the crowd of Philalexandros from all over the world.

This Abukir Medallion was part of a stash of 20 medallions, 600 gold coins, and about 20 stamped gold ingots discovered by chance in Egypt in 1902. Shortly after their discovery, they were presented to the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris and the British Museum in London. It is hard to believe that both institutions refused to buy the medallions. Their excuse was that they doubted their provenance and authenticity. 

In the end, the medallions were offered to the Staatliche Museen (Berlin State Museum) in Berlin, which purchased five of them after being able to establish that they were genuine. The remainder was sold to private collectors around the world. In 1949, the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon acquired three medallions from James Loeb and another eight from the Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum in New York. Alexander is represented on seven of these gold pieces, and his mother, Olympias, on another two. One medallion depicted Emperor Caracalla, a great admirer of Alexander who tried to emulate him (as if he could!)

Exploring the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki

It is not common knowledge that many mighty Macedonian kingdom relics are kept at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. Grave goods from all over Macedonia and the many tombs discovered in the suburbs of Thessaloniki are on display.

Treasures ranging from delicate gold sheet ornaments found on funeral garments to numerous gold earrings, pendants, necklaces, rings, fibulae, bracelets, and coins await the unprepared visitor. The most remarkable artifacts are the exquisite gold wreaths of olive, ivy, myrtle, and oak leaves. Looking closely, we'll discover the tiny figure of Heracles or his typical knot. When a crowd of people walks around, these little flowers and leaves tend to tremble; imagine the effect they have when worn live! 

The wealthiest finds come from the so-called Derveni Tombs, some 10 km NW of Thessaloniki. One of these tombs yielded twenty silver vases, many alabaster and bronze vases, terracotta vessels, some of which were gilded, and iron weapons, including a pair of bronze greaves. But the pièce de résistance is the richly decorated bronze crater generally referred to as the Derveni Crater, which is worth exploring in detail.

The Derveni Crater stands 90 cm tall and weighs some 40 kg. It is not made of gold, as one would assume at first glance, but of a bronze alloy containing about 15% tin, which produces its unique golden sheen. Different metals were used for the figures and other decoration elements, and inlays of silver, copper, bronze, etc. The motives are a mere hymn to the god Dionysus, who sits naked next to Ariadne and familiarly rests his leg on his wife's thigh. Behind the newlywed couple stands a panther, the animal sacred to the god. Around the crater and surrounding the couple, we recognize satyrs and maenads in their orgiastic dance. Two more maenads, a resting Dionysus, and a sleeping satyr, are all sitting cozily on the shoulders of the vase. 

Vine and ivy branches, palm leaves, and acanthus in different metal colors among tame and wild animals are depicted on the bands above and under the relief of the godly couple. This crater dates from between 330 and 320 BC. It was made either by a sculptor from the Chalcidice trained in Athens or by a bronzesmith from the Royal Court of Alexander.

It is one of the pieces that truly stands for the wealth and beauty that existed at the Macedonian palaces and surrounding Alexander.

Some more vessels and jugs from these graves are labeled bronze, although they shine like gold. Such a high standard of art! An excellent iron pectoral from Pydna also has a thin gold sheet, unlike the Macedonian ones exhibited elsewhere.

This gold medallion represents Queen Olympias wearing a chiton and a light himation to cover her hair, and is worth the visit altogether. The medallion's reverse depicts a sea monster, half bull, half fish, with a nude woman sitting on its back. The figure could well be the Nereid Thetis, mother of Achilles – clearly inspired by Alexander's admiration for Homer's tales. It appeared during the games held in honor of Alexander at Beroea in 225-250 AD. This medallion is part of the hoard of twenty such pieces found in Abukir, near Alexandria, in 1902. 

Three other medallions are part of the Berlin Bode Museum collection. It is pure joy to admire these priceless portraits of Alexander, one with Nike and another with a diadem. Eleven of the other medallions went to the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, Portugal; the one depicting Emperor Caracalla, a great admirer of Alexander, is at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, USA. It is the only existing picture of Olympias, although it is probably idealized.

Beyond this precious and unique collection of Macedonian gold, the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki holds another rare treasure: Europe's oldest surviving papyrus, also found at Derveni. Since the roll to which it belongs dates to around 340 BC, the papyrus is contemporary with Philip II and Alexander! The bits of papyrus belong to a philosophical treatise, a commentary on an Orphic poem concerning the birth of the gods, probably written in Attica around 420-410 BC. 

It certainly pays off to venture downstairs, where the Tomb of Agios Athanasios occupies a privileged room. However, that story has already been covered (see: The Macedonian Tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki).

[Picture from Thessaloniki Travel]

There is, of course, far more to discover in the sections about the Kingdom of Macedonia and Thessaloniki, the Metropolis of Macedonia, that fit in the broader Alexander context. Most noticeable is, for instance, a lovely head of what could be young Alexander from the 2nd century AD. The inscription mentions "Thessalonica daughter of Philip, Queen" from 150-200 AD. It means Alexander's half-sister. Also, a fascinating relief dedicated to Hephaistion from Pella, 320-300 BC  (see: Another effigy of Hephaistion?). Besides, there is a wide assortment of sarcophagi, funerary steles, inscriptions, statues, mosaics, and architectural elements from all over Macedonia and from Thessaloniki, like the columns from the Temple of Aphrodite (see: Thessaloniki's Temple of Aphrodite).

Please, do include a visit to this magnificent museum next time you are in the area – or hop a plane if you happen to be in Athens, for instance. It is worth the extra mile!

[Click here for more pictures from the Archaeological Museum in Thessaloniki]

The Philotas Affair – Part I – How the plot was revealed

In 330 BC, when encamped at Phrada (modern Fara in Afghanistan), also called Alexandria-in-Drangiana, Philotas was accused of conspiracy against Alexander. A similar accusation had been brought to Alexander’s attention before, when he was in Egypt, by Antigone, Philotas’ mistress, but at that time, he had refused to believe it. This time, however, there was solid proof, and one of the accusers included Coenus, who was married to Philotas’ sister.

Curtius, as usual, gives by far the most detailed report, which by itself reads like the script for a thriller. The story starts with a certain Dymnus, a man of little importance, who was madly in love with young Nicomachus and anxious to bind him to his person. He lures him into the temple, saying that he has something very important and confidential to share with him. Under the spell of his deep affection, Dymnus demands his lover to pledge under oath to keep silent what he is about to disclose, and Nicomachus, not expecting anything incumbent, complies. Satisfied, Dymnus then tells him that a plot against Alexander has been arranged and will be executed in three days, adding, to give himself more importance, that he shares the plan with some brave and distinguished men. The young man’s reaction, however, is pure horror, and he immediately tells Dymnus that he cannot take part in such treason and cannot be bound by his oath to the gods to keep such a crime secret!

Dymnus is furious, hurt in his love, and fearing betrayal, he begs him to take part in the plot; if he cannot do this, at least he should not betray him, for, after all, he trusted him with his life. As Nicomachus stubbornly continues to express his abhorrence of the crime, Dymnus tries to frighten him by saying that the conspirators would take his life before taking that of their king. To no avail. Dymnus then tries every trick of the trade to convince him. He goes as far as to pull his sword, pointing it to his lover’s throat, then to his own, and in the end forces him to promise his silence as well as his support.

In reality, Nicomachus has not changed his mind; he just pretends to go along, saying that out of love for Dymnus, he could not refuse, and then inquires about the other associates in this highly important matter. Dymnus congratulates him on his decision to join the other conspirators like Demetrius (belonging to Alexander’s bodyguard), Peucolaüs, Nicanor, and also men like Aphobetus, Iolaus, Theoxenus, Archepolis, and Amyntas.

Imagine the load resting on Nicomachus’ shoulders at this point! He simply cannot ignore the information he has been entrusted with and shares it with his brother, Cebalinus. In order not to make Nicomachus suspicious of betrayal by going to Alexander, Cebalinus enters the vestibule of Alexander’s tent, where he waits for one of the king’s friends to appear. It happens to be Philotas, and Cebalinus reveals the plot to him, insisting that he should tell Alexander at once. Philotas remains with Alexander for some time but does not mention the conspiracy. When Cebalinus meets Philotas later that night and inquires if he has done what he requested, Philotas simply states that Alexander had no time to talk with him, and he walks away. The next day, Cebalinus once again is near Alexander’s tent when Philotas is on his way in, and he reminds him of this most serious issue. Philotas answers that he is attending to it, but again does nothing.

At this point, Cebalinus becomes suspicious of Philotas and decides to talk to one of the king’s Pages. He approaches Metron, who is in charge of the armory. Metron instantly understands the urgency and seriousness of the matter and goes to Alexander while he is bathing. Alexander immediately orders Dymnus to be arrested and walks into the armory where Cebalinus had hidden, pending the king’s reaction. Alexander, of course, wants to know all the details, and in particular, when Nicomachus had given him the information. Upon learning that it was two days ago, Alexander puts Cebalinus in fetters, upon which the poor boy shouts that he had informed Philotas without any delay and that it was he who had withheld the news. Accusing Philotas, one of the king’s Companions and trusted friends, was unheard of, and Alexander kept on questioning Nicomachus, who time and again retells the same story.

At this point, Dymnus is to be brought before Alexander. Dymnus, however, as soon as he learned that he was called to Alexander's tent, had wounded himself with his sword, and by the time he stood before his king, his speech already failed him; he swooned and died. This certainly confirmed the man’s guilt.

Philotas, too, was summoned to the royal tent. Imagine the commotion that has risen by now! Alexander confronts him with the words reported to him by Cebalinus, adding that if he had indeed concealed the conspiracy for two days, the man deserved the extreme penalty, but since he insists that he immediately reported the information to him, Philotas, the general, has some explaining to do. Philotas is in no way disturbed by these words and replies that Cebalinus had indeed spoken to him, but that he had not given the matter any credibility and had dismissed it as a quarrel between a lover and his favorite. Yet the suicide of Dymnus proves otherwise.

At this stage, Philotas throws his arms around Alexander, begging him to consider his past deeds rather than finding fault with his silence. It is uncertain at this stage whether Alexander believes him or not; in any case, he offers Philotas his right hand, saying that the information seemed to have been rejected and not concealed. But clearly, Alexander didn’t take the matter as lightly as he made Philotas believe, and shortly afterward, he called a meeting with his friends, of which Philotas was excluded. Nicomachus is brought in, and he confirms the story as reported by his brother before.

Craterus, an important rival of Philotas, reminds the king of the general’s repeated bragging about his own valor and accomplishments and accuses him of arrogance. Taking advantage of this situation, Craterus underscores that Philotas would always be able to plot against him, and Alexander would not always be able to pardon him. The other Companions have no doubt that Philotas would not have blurred evidence of the conspiracy unless he was closely involved. If truly a loyal friend, Philotas would have hastened to his king as soon as he heard about this conspiracy. After all, Philotas had spent the whole day in amusement and allegedly had found no room to place a few words about the life and death of his king. Even if he had not taken Cebalinus seriously, why excuse himself by saying there had been no opportunity to bring the matter to Alexander’s attention?

The charges were clear, and all parties present decided that Philotas should be tortured in order to obtain the names of the conspirators. Alexander dismisses his Companions with instructions to keep silent about this plan. He then issues orders that the army should prepare for a march the next day, keeping everyone in a state of alert. As a masterly strategist and a true poker player, Alexander invites Philotas to a banquet, entertains him, and talks to him familiarly as usual.

That night, when the lights had been put out, Alexander’s trusted friends gathered in his tent. Among them are Hephaistion, Craterus, Coenus, and Erigyius, as well as Perdiccas and Leonnatus. The order is given to those standing on guard at the king’s tent to remain on watch and under arms. The cavalry was already stationed at all the camp’s entrances with instructions to let nobody in or out. With these safety measures in place, a certain Atarrhias is summoned to the royal tent with 300 armed men and men-at-arms. The latest is sent out to arrest the known conspirators, while Atarrhias and his men have orders to apprehend Philotas. With fifty of his bravest soldiers, he breaks into his quarters while the rest of them surround the house to thwart any possible escape. Atarrhias finds Philotas in deep sleep, puts him in chains, and leads him to Alexander.

Sources do not concur on what happens next. It is not certain whether Philotas was tortured or not to extract his confession that he and his father wanted to kill Alexander. 

... to be continued in The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution

[Pictures from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander are from Movie Screen Shots]