Sassanid art in pictures

The Sassanids ruled over Iran from 224 AD until the Arabs took over in the 7^th century AD. This is a far cry from the empire of Darius III that Alexander conquered. Yet, it is an interesting time frame altogether since the Sassanids drew their inspiration from the earlier Achaemenid rule (see: Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia).

This era left its imprints all over Persia, as can be seen in the rock-carved reliefs of Naqs-i Rajab and Naqsh-i Rustam close to Persepolis, Tang-i Tchogan at Bishapur and Taq-iBostan near Kermanshah. Also, the temples of goddess Anahita, both in Bishapur and in Kangavar show a mixture of Sassanid and Hellenistic influences (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia).

[Picture from Tehran Times]

Presently, the Italian University of Sapienza in Rome has worked together with the Anahita Temple National Center in Kangavar to exhibit photographs on arts and monuments, together with architectural works from across the province of Kermanshah in western Iran. The pictures include views of the ruins of the Anahita Temple in Kangavar as well as of the Palace of Khosrow Parviz in Qasr-e Shirin.

The Iranian collaboration with the Italian experts has centered on Anahita’s sanctuary in Kangavar as discussed earlier in my blog The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia.

Also highlighted is the Palace of the Sassanid King Ardashir in Firuzabad that displays the unique dome construction known as the squinch. This architectural feature consists of building a dome on top of a square base. It may well be the earliest surviving example and could indicate that the squinch was actually invented in Persia.

The imposing palace of Ctesiphon or Hatra (now in modern Iraq) is much better known because of a sizable vaulted arch. This city was built by the Parthians in the 2^nd century BC as the capital of their empire. Ctesiphon/Hatra was conquered by the Sassanids in 226 AD, who turned it into a true metropolis worthy to serve as their capital. I seem to remember that the arch or at least the human heads in the surrounding walls were attacked by IS fanatics, but I couldn’t find a confirmation to that end.

Little information about the Sassanid empire transpires beyond the borders of modern Iraq and Iran, despite the grand cities these kings built using their precious craftsmanship as metal workers and gem engravers. They also took care of translating much of the existing western and eastern literature into Pahlavi, the Sassanid language.

The most important temple of Anahita at Istakhr

In an earlier blog (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia), I took a closer look at the goddess Anahita originating in Central Asia and later worshiped throughout Persia to the end of the Sassanid rule. A few centuries later, the Islam annihilated whatever was left of the goddess’ rich legacy. Yet her spirit lived on thanks to the Zoroastrian believers.

The city of Istakhr (also spelled as Estakr) is to be found five kilometers north of Persepolis but is rarely visited. It may well have been a suburb of the Achaemenid royal residences of Persepolis. Not much remains of this settlement and even less of the once so grand temple. As early as the 4^th century BC, Artaxerxes II, erected a statue in honor of Anahita or Anaitis as the Greeks called her, and placed it inside the temple among other goddesses.

Anahita’s best-known temples are those located of Kangavar, near ancient Ecbatana, and at Bishapur. But the most important sanctuary, however, stood here at Istakhr near Persepolis. Sadly, all that remains of this Temple of Anahita in Istakhr is one uninspiring column with part of its double-headed bull capital. Many of the Achaemenid columns were re-used in the construction of an early mosque that probably replaced the Fire Temple. 

[Picture kindly shared with me by Robbert Bosschart]

In its heyday, the Achaemenid city of Istakhr was an important starting point on the ancient caravan route to the Indus Valley, which ran through the Southeastern Provinces of Sistan and Kandahar. According to the Arab sources mentioned hereafter, the temple had been ravaged by the Macedonians. It is possible that this happened when Alexander’s soldiers rampaged through the city of Persepolis (see: Fire over Persepolis), but that still remains unclear.

During the Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD), the sacred fire of the temple of Anahita was kept burning.

The Sassanids, who came to power in 224 AD, rebuilt Istakhr, apparently using much of Persepolis’ rubble. King Ardashir (224-242 AD), promoted the city as his first capital till it was replaced by Ctesiphon. The empire’s treasury, however, remained in Istakhr.

The temple survived for centuries as “the house of Anahid’s fire” and it seems that most, if not all the Sassanid kings were crowned at this temple.

In 640 AD, Istakhr was attacked by the Arabs. Shiraz was founded in 684, and eventually replaced Istakhr, whose power was broken. 

The Arab traveler, historian and geographer Al-Mas’udi, also known as the Herodotus of the Arabs, visited the temple of Istakhr in the 10th century AD. He described it with the following words: ”It stood, …, at the foot of a mountain, where the imprisoned wind made a noise like thunder, night and day’” … “ still standing, “pillars, made from blocks of astonishing size, surmounted by curious figures in stone representing horses and other animals, of gigantic shapes and proportions" (text copied from the Encyclopaedia Iranica). 

The city of Istakhr was last documented in numismatics with a dinar issued in 1063 AD. Over the course of time, the temple sank into oblivion.

Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia

Traveling through Iran, you simply can’t miss these many reliefs. The Sassanid kings definitely were not modest and took pride in advertising their investiture and their conquests on several cliff walls, generally located close to a water source. Yet, you’ll ask, what is their connection to Alexander the Great?

Well, it may be far-fetched, but whatever you think, Hellenism and today’s way of living are all a consequence of Alexander’s conquests anyway; so why not include the Sassanids to start with? Another reason is that the Sassanid kings tried to recreate the Achaemenid Empire and repossess the territories that fell under their rule some five hundred years before.

As we know, the Achaemenid Empire ended when Alexander the Great conquered Persia, his first step being his victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC and his final move being the execution of Bessus, the self-appointed successor of King Darius III in 329 BC. After Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire was eventually divided among his leading generals. Seleucos I ruled over the eastern part of Alexander’s Empire from 312 BC onwards, and his realm included Persia. But soon, the Parthians from northern Iran would revolt against the Seleucids, and by 171 BC, their King Mithridates the Great really put his new empire on the map to include, besides modern Iran, Iraq, and Armenia, parts of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkey as well. The Parthian empire collapsed when the Persians of the Sassanid dynasty took over in 224 AD. That’s it in a nutshell, of course.

The Sassanid kings, in turn, ruled for more than four hundred years, and it is not surprising that they left a heritage of their own. Overall, they wanted to emulate the Achaemenids in their art, and the figures in the reliefs are still rather stiff and emotionless, although the flow of their dresses hints at a slight Greek influence. A noticeable difference is also that some of the personages are shown facing the onlooker or at least in a three-quarters position and not in profile, as the Achaemenids did.

It does come as a surprise to find the far-reaching impression Hellenism has left in Sogdiana, Bactria, or India, while here in Sassanid Persia, it hardly shows. Looking at their silver tableware or at their coinage, it is even very hard to tell them apart from similar Achaemenid artifacts.

Taq-i Bostan

The first Sassanid reliefs I came to see were those of Taq-i Bostan, an idyllic place set along a reflecting pool fed by several sacred springs not too far from the city of Kermanshah in western Iran. The main features are two arches. The largest one and most lavishly decorated is showing the investiture of King Khosrow II, who ruled from 591 to 628 AD. On the upper level, he is standing between Ahuramazda and the goddess Anahita (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia), and on the lower register, the king is on horseback. Both side walls are richly decorated with hunting scenes of wild boars on the left and deer on the right side. The carved angels floating above the iwan stand for victory.

The smaller arch or iwan contains a relief of King Shapur III (who reigned from 383 to 388 AD) facing his father Shapur II (the Great), who ruled from 309 to 379 AD. Next to each king is an explanatory inscription in Pahlavi giving the names of their respective father and grandfather. It specifies that each king worshipped Ahuramazda and ruled over Iran and “non-Iran.”

Past these two arches is another relief, this time cut into the very cliff wall itself. This is the oldest relief and represents the investiture of King Ardashir II (379-383 AD) on foot. He is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, standing next to him, while on his other side, we recognize the god Mithra, who is carrying the sacred barsom (bundle of small rods), symbolizing power. This investiture includes Ardashir’s triumph over the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate in 363 AD, who is lying at his feet.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Taq-i Bostan]

Bishapur

The next reliefs I’m encountering are those of Tang-i Tchogan at Bishapur, located between Kazarun and Shiraz, along the Shapur River, glorifying King Shapur I, who founded Bishapur in 266 AD. From this new capital with its unique and awkward Temple of Anahita (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia), we have to cross the river for a closer look at the six Sassanid rock reliefs in the cliffs facing us.

It is at Bishapur that Shapur I (reigned from 241 to 272 AD) inaugurated the Sassanid imagery of the king's investiture, which would be copied by his successors: the king and the god are face to face, often on horseback, and the god - usually Ahuramazda - is handing the royal diadem over to the sovereign. Shapur I is represented on three separate reliefs, commemorating his triple triumph over Rome, having killed Gordian III (in 244 AD), forced Philip the Arab to surrender (also in 244 AD), and captured Valerian (in 260 AD) – no small matter, of course.

The largest relief is nearly 12.5 meters long and 4.50 meters high and is divided into several distinctive parts. At its center, we see the investiture of Shapur I riding his horse, whose left hoof is resting on the head of the defeated Emperor Gordian III lying at his feet. At the same time, the king is grasping the wrist of Emperor Philip the Arab, standing next to him. Facing him, we recognize the kneeling Emperor Valerian begging for mercy while two Persian dignitaries are standing behind him. Above King Shapur’s head, we notice a winged Nike (a Greek influence, after all!) holding the crown of victory. The left panel is split into two registers, one above the other, in which five Persian horsemen are depicted in profile. The right panel, also split into two rows, shows five smaller scenes that cannot be identified properly, but where we recognize the Persian army and possibly mercenaries from different parts of the empire.

The next relief is set in a concave part of the cliff and is 6.80 meters high and 9.20 meters wide. Surprisingly, it has been inspired by the Column of Trajan in Rome. In the center, we find King Shapur I in the same traditional composition as seen in the previous relief, with Emperor Gordian stretched underneath his horse and the king holding the wrist of Philip the Arab. The panels on either side are very elaborate and detailed. Unfortunately, during my visit, the view was impaired by a heavy scaffold, and it wasn’t easy to make out the crowded scenes. To the left, the Persian cavalry is approaching in two rows, one above the other, with only the top bodies of the riders and the front of the horses visible. On the right-hand side, much more is happening in the five small panels depicting Persian soldiers and Roman prisoners bringing in the booty, as well as mercenaries from all over the empire.

To the right of this concave relief, there is a flat one 7.5 meters long showing King Bahram II (276-293 AD) receiving a delegation of Bedouins. Bahram II is on horseback, holding the reins with his right hand and his bow and arrows in his left. A Persian officer on foot leads the Bedouins in their typical dress; in the back of the picture, there are three more men with horses and camels.

This brings us to the relief with the investiture on horseback of Bahram I, facing Ahuramazda on an identical horse, handing over the crown with ribbons. The figure on the floor underneath the king could be Bahram III and was added later by King Narseh (reigned 293-302 AD), who also wrote the Pahlavi inscription.

This relief is followed by a large one (11 meters long and 4.5 meters high) divided by cross-shaped beams representing the victory of King Shapur II (who reigned from 309 to 379 AD) over the Romans and the Christians. This picture is totally different from the previous scenes; it looks rough and unfinished, probably because originally it was plastered and painted. The top central figure is the king in person in a sitting position, looking rather frightful. In the presence of his nobles on his left, he reviews the prisoners and the booty. On the bottom left quarter, we find Persian warriors following the king’s horse that is being led forward. To the right of the king, Persian soldiers are bringing in the captives, while in the bottom right quarter, soldiers are carrying decapitated heads, surrounded by Persian warriors and nobles carrying vases. I wonder if this is meant to frighten his people.

A last relief along this peaceful river is around the bend and less well preserved. It is, in fact, a repeat of an identical previous picture of Shapur I, enjoying his victory over Emperor Gordian III, Emperor Philip the Arab, and the best preserved Emperor Valerian kneeling in front of him.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Bishapur]

Naqs-i Rajab

Close to Persepolis, there are two more sites with rock reliefs. Here again, we find the investiture of Shapur I as represented above, where the king on horseback is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, facing him and sitting on an identical horse.

On the opposite wall in this loop, there is another relief of Shapur I (reigned from 241 till 272 AD), this time showing the king on horseback surrounded by nine court dignitaries. Four of these nobles are more or less hidden behind the horse, and the first man behind the king. In his direct suite, three muscled men occupy a prominent position, with a hand on their long swords; the two others are mere busts. On the rear of the horse, there is a trilingual inscription in Parthian, Pahlavi, and Greek. This is the last known Greek inscription in Iran.

From an earlier date is the adjacent investiture of Ardashir I on foot, the very founder of the Sassanid Dynasty, who reigned from 224-241 AD. He is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, facing him. In between them, we see two smaller figures; the dressed one is believed to be King Bahram I, the oldest son of Shapur I, facing the naked god of the same name, who was later identified as the Greek Heracles. Behind Ardashir I stands a courtier holding a fan. Next to him, we recognize crown-prince Shapur I. Exceptional is the presence of two women on the right, undoubtedly members of the royal family, and the one on the far end could be Ardashir’s spouse and sister Denak.

It is here that we find the highly unusual representation of the Zoroastrian high priest, Katir, mentioned in the context of the Zoroastrian Tower at nearby Naqsh-i Rustam (see: The Cube of Zoroaster or the Ka’bah-i Zardusht at Naqsh-i Rustam) with a Pahlavi inscription.

Naqsh-i Rustam

Naqsh-i Rustam is within walking distance from Naqs-i Rajab and has by far the greatest number of rock reliefs, both Achaemenid (see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis) and Sassanid. These Sassanid reliefs have been etched in a lower register beneath the Achaemenid tombs, and there is actually a series of seven such reliefs carved some five hundred years after the tombs for the Achaemenid kings.

For Shapur I, his triumph over the Romans is a repeat, although less elaborate than what I have seen at Bishapur (see above).

The most popular figure here is, however, King Bahram II, who reigned over Persia from 276 to 293 AD. We find this king three times:

- with family members and court dignitaries bringing homage to their king:

Here, the king is larger than life-size (2.5 meters), set at the center of the relief, his hands resting on his long sword. Among the five members of the royal family on the left, we see the high priest Kartir and the queen. On the right are the busts of three courtiers.

- in a cavalry fight (located below the Tomb of Darius II, see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis)

Here, the king is fighting a mounted Roman soldier, clearly hitting his adversary.

- in a double cavalry fight (located below the Tomb of Darius I, see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis) :

This scene is split into two panels. In the upper panel, the king in scaled armor is meeting his mounted Roman enemy in full gallop, while on the lower panel, a helmeted prince is facing his enemy in the same fashion as the king above. In both cases, the dead enemy is lying under the horse’s hooves.

Like at Naqsh-i Rajab, there is another investiture of Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanid Dynasty, receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, both on horseback and facing each other. This panel carries a trilingual inscription in Parthian, Pahlavi, and Greek.

The rock relief depicting the investiture of King Narseh on foot shows how he is receiving his crown from Anahita, although this is being disputed since his posture does not appear to be the appropriate one for meeting a goddess; it is thought that the lady is a relative, maybe Queen Shapurdokhtak. In between them stands a smaller figure, and it is suggested that this could be Narseh’s grandson and the son of Hormizd II. King Narseh succeeded Bahram II in 293 AD, and his successor, in turn, is Hormizd II.

King Hormizd II comes to power in 303 AD and is shown in the cliff wall underneath the Tomb of Artaxerxes I. He is riding a galloping horse, forcing his opponent from his horse with his lance.

And finally, the last relief is that of King Shapur II, who ruled from 309 to 379 AD, sitting on the throne.

In between this relief and the Tomb of Artaxerxes is a badly damaged and hardly recognizable relief of what is thought to be Shapur II, surrounded by his courtiers.

The Sassanid kings intended to leave their imprint on their empire, of which they were very proud. For me, the history of Persia would not have been complete without talking about the Sassanids, as they were the last of the long lineage of rulers that started with Cyrus the Great (see: Cyrus the Great, who made Pasargadae the capital of Persia). The rise of Islam spreading along the trade routes ever further east put a final end to the Sassanids and to the grandeur of Persia.

The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia

Anahita is a water goddess whose origins go back to Central Asia, from where her worship spread through Persia all the way to the Middle East. Anahita literally means "the moist, strong and pure one" and embodies the qualities of water, especially the fertilizing flow of water. Over the centuries, her role increased, including that of "patron goddess of royalty."

Her very name is not familiar to most of us, which is not surprising since, over the centuries, she has been assimilated into the Babylonian Anaitis, the Greek Aphrodite and Athena, the Roman Diana, and even the Egyptian Isis. The Armenians, who once were part of the great Persian empire, still call her the "Great Lady Anahita, Life-Giver of our Nation, Mother of Sobriety, and Benefactress of Humanity." In 1997, the Central Bank of Armenia –an orthodox Christian nation- saw fit to issue a gold coin with her image.

Anahita, however, lived a long and complex godly life. The earliest known records go back to Artaxerxes II, who ruled over Persia from 404 to 358 BC and was the first to make a statue of Anahita to be placed in temples at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, Persepolis, Damascus, and even Sardes. This same king put the name of Anahita directly after that of Ahuramazda and before that of Mithra – a clear sign of her importance. The inscription left by Artaxerxes II at Susa confirms this: "By the will of Ahuramazda, Anahita and Mithra, I built this palace." We should remember that Artaxerxes II was the father of the later Queen Sisygambis, the mother of Darius III, who was defeated by Alexander. Through his close contact with the Queen Mother, Alexander must have been well aware of Anahita's role in the Persian gods' realm. Like so many other Greeks of his days, he may have assimilated her with Aphrodite.

After a period of relative obscurity, the Sassanid kings revived the cult. One example is visible on the relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, where King Narseh (ruled 293-302 AD) is receiving his crown from Anahita in person and not from Ahuramazda as was customary till then. She is on the right of this relief, holding the crown in her right hand, while the king at the center receives the diadem with his right hand.

Anahita also appears in the largest cliff wall of Taq-e-Bostan, next to King Khosrow II (early 7^th century), who receives his crown from the high priest under the protection of Anahita as the guardian angel of the waters (on his right side, left looking at it). The founder of the Sassanid empire, King Ardashir (mid-3^rd century), venerated Anahita also as his Goddess of War and would, for instance, send the heads of the petty kings he defeated to be displayed in her temple. Unfortunately, the Romans destroyed Anahita's temples, and a few centuries later, Islam erased what was left of her rich legacy – yet her spirit lived on. 

It was a pleasant surprise to discover that at least two of her temples had survived, and this led me to start my own investigation of Anahita. Until then, my knowledge of her was minimal. Even my local guide in Iran had little to tell about her except that he linked her to the Sassanid rulers more than a thousand years after her origins in Central Asia.

My first encounter happened at Kangavar, situated on the antique highway between Ecbatana and Ctesiphon, close to modern Hamadan. It is quite an amazing site I knew only from pictures, mainly columns belonging to a temple set in Hellenistic style. On the billboard at the entrance, I read that this site is 220 meters long and 210 meters wide and that the columns were 3.45 meters high, but nothing about its time frame or construction. Information from the internet is scant and often unreliable and even contradictory.

Some say (Dr. Kaveh Farrokh) that this temple of Anahita was built during the early Parthian occupation, some time between 248 BC and 224 AD. Yet others (The Zoroastrian Education Institute) mention that it was built by Artaxerxes II between 404 and 359 BC based on the shape and carving of the columns, which is similar to those of Persepolis and Susa, but adds that the temple was plundered by Alexander in 335 BC which is utterly impossible since the new Macedonian king was still crushing the rebellion in the lands around Macedonia that arose after his father's death one year before. Robbert Bosschart, on the other hand, devotes an entire chapter of his book "All Alexander's Women" to Anahita and the role this goddess played in Persian religion. Still, he only refers to her "main temple" in Istakhr near Persepolis and says nothing about the temples I visited in Kangavar and Bishapur. Digging in further, I find that both Polybius and Plutarch mention a temple of Anahita at Ecbatana, once a most glorious sanctuary. Just remember that Ecbatana is the old name for Hamadan and could thus be linked to nearby Kangavar. 

On the other hand, Arrian tells about a temple at Ecbatana that, according to local lore, had been razed on orders of Alexander because it was considered a sanctuary of Asclepius, and Alexander was furious at this God of Health for not having saved the life of his dear friend Hephaistion in Ecbatana. However, Arrian explains why this local lore is not at all believable. Anyway, it is clear that in the Successor Wars after Alexander's death, Macedonian troops plundered the Anahita temple more than once. This is confirmed by Polybius, who tells us that when Antiochus III arrived in Ecbatana in 209 BC, he found much of the temple's wealth scattered around: columns covered in gold, silver tiles, and many gold and silver bricks. Yet, all of this doesn't reveal much, if anything, about the appearance of the temple or its origins. It is, however, clear that I am confronted with an edifice of Hellenistic character with Achaemenid architectural elements and that it is not impossible that Alexander visited the place.

Excavations from 1968 match the comment made by the geographer Isidore of Charax that this temple is set on a high platform (32 meters high actually) and has Ionian columns (which, of course, must have been much taller than the 3.45 m mentioned on the entrance billboard). He attributes this temple to Artemis, who was associated with Anahita in his days (1^st century BC/1^st century AD). It sounds very plausible that the temple underwent later adjustments and/or modifications by the Parthians and the Sassanids. However, archaeologists from the University of Tehran tend to attribute the ruins to those of a Sassanid Palace. Not much to go by except my own instinct!

Upon arrival here at Kangavar, I am immediately drawn to a stone wall with a staircase on either end that reminds me of the Apadana at Persepolis. The theory that this is the location of an Achaemenid Palace is not unfounded because of this typical stairway and the superposed platforms, one of which is supported by a smooth wall in Achaemenid style and the one above it being older and rougher but very strongly built of large rocks alternating with horizontal rows of smaller rocks. Many broken columns and capitals are lying around. The only recognizable structure I could associate with the Temple of Anahita is at the far left end, where I see a relatively well-preserved row of columns overlooking the landscape below – now a modern street with houses. A small mosque is apparently set on a corner of the temple floor; otherwise, I cannot make out much from these ruins resting on this straight stone wall. To the site's far right, I find the remains of earthen walls or some kind of fortification dotted with more bits and pieces of columns. The place definitely is in dire need of some archaeological cleanup.

The second Anahita Temple is located at Bishapur, some 100 km west of Shiraz. This temple is said to be built by Roman prisoners captured by the Sassanid King Shapur I in 260 AD. The city of Bishapur was founded by Shapur I after his impressive confrontation with the Romans when he killed Gordian III, captured Valerian, and forced Philip the Arab to surrender. These glorious facts are commemorated in the reliefs he etched in the walls on the other side of the nearby Bishapur River. 

The city walls of Bishapur are still solid and look rather Roman because of their rectangular shape. Originally they were ten meters high and punctuated with round towers, suggesting they were designed as a battery for catapults. Interestingly, on the northeastern side, the remains of a city gate are still standing. Bishapur was clearly intended to hold a population of 50,000 to 80,000 people.

The so-called Palace of Bishapur is still a puzzle to the archaeologists with its four half vaults that are closely related to later mosques with four iwans and its walls with 64 niches that supposedly were decorated with freestanding statues – a relatively rare occurrence in Sassanid art. Close to the center there is a fire altar that is however often interpreted as a shrine to Anahita. This association may be the consequence of an iconoclastic movement launched by Bahram I (272-273 AD), who had the statues of divinities removed from the sanctuaries that were consequently either abandoned or converted into fire altars. According to a recent report published in a Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, it seems that water and fire were being worshiped together in early Sassanid times.

To the north of this complex are the remains of the Temple of Anahita, which draws attention because of its plain white wall built with regular ashlar blocks. It looks like another puzzle for this building has no parallel so far. The temple is deeper than any other part of the palace and can only be accessed by descending a vaulted straight stairway that ends in a small square area measuring 14x14m surrounded by 14-meter-high walls that each has a doorway in the middle. 

These doorways with lintels not unlike those of Persepolis lead to a corridor that runs around the patio and connect to an aqueduct. It is said that the central square must have been a pool. If so, the water must have run through the hole in the threshold into the surrounding corridors with a gutter on either side of the floor. It is assumed that the water flowed only on certain days of the year, which could be related to ceremonies venerating Anahita as the goddess of waters. The abovementioned report shows that the northwest and the northeast corridors were used to bring in the water.

In contrast, the southwest corridor was exclusively used to expel the water. To add to the many questions this temple creates, we can wonder about the two outer walls that top in a triangle. Since the sanctuary had no roof, scholars believe these triangles were crowned with a large bull impost. Yet others speculate that there was a roof and that its wooden beams were supported by those bull-heads.

The goddess Anahita certainly deserves more attention as she excelled in her godly realm for centuries. According to the Avesta, the water goddess Anahita was the mother of the god of Victory, Mithra. Zoroaster, a Bactrian reformer, turned Mithra into the Savior, and Anahita consequently was venerated as an immaculate virgin, the Mother of God. Nothing new under the sun, I would say.

[Click here for Pictures of the different Anahita sites]

Dura Europos, last stop on the Euphrates

After Deir Ezzor, Rasaffa, and Halabia, I am heading for Dura Europos, Syria's most southeastern frontier garrison on the Euphrates. The landscape is as barren as the northeastern desert corner of Jordan, and it is hard to imagine that Mesopotamia once was so fertile and consequently so prosperous. Instead, I suddenly see a row of sand dunes, but so straight that they must be manmade. And they are, for these are drift-sands that accumulated against the walls of Dura Europos, the only original Hellenistic fort in the abovementioned series. Approaching from the land side, it is not apparent to appreciate the unique location as the Euphrates only reveals itself once you have penetrated the very heart of the city.

Like Apamea and Deir Ezzor, it was founded around 303 BC by Seleucos. He wanted to build a reliable control post on the Euphrates and new trade routes with his recently founded cities of Antioch-on-the-Orontes and Seleucia-on-the-Tigris. He must have remembered the lessons of his master, Alexander.

Being Hellenistic, it is no surprise that Dura Europos is set up according to the Hippodamian plan with right-angled streets around the large central Agora. The Parthians conquered the city by the end of the second century BC. They stayed till the arrival of the Romans in 165 AD. People of different origins lived in Dura Europos, as testified by papyri and parchment inscribed in Greek, Latin, Aramean, Hebrew, Syriac, the language of Hatra, Palmyrene, Persian, and Pahlavi. But it is mainly the Macedonians who left their indelible imprint on this place.

The main entrance is through the Palmyra Gate, which, although only partially preserved, gives an excellent idea of how this stronghold was conceived. The surrounding massive nine-meter-high ramparts are interrupted by a series of defense towers built, like in Halabia, with the same pink crystal-like gypsum. But it is difficult to get a good overall picture of the site since most of the city is half-buried under the sands. However, on the far left is where the Roman military camp from the third century is located, complete with the commander's palace. 

Following the main street in the direction of the Euphrates, I am pointed to the right, where most of the sixteen temples were situated, worshiped by Christians and pagans alike. The oldest synagogue of Jewish origin is among them, dating according to Aramean inscriptions to 244 AD. Every inch of its walls and ceiling were covered with wonderfully well-preserved frescoes depicting scenes of the Last Judgment. Men and animals from the oldest bible stories are illustrated with vivid images and colorful pictures. The inside of this synagogue has been entirely dismantled and moved to the Archaeological Museum of Damascus, which is worth a visit if only for this synagogue!

Besides the synagogue, there are temples dedicated to Mithras, Baal, and Adonis, proof that Jews, Christians, and pagans lived together in this multicultural city. The first traces of the Mithras Temple go back to the period 168-171, i.e., Roman times. Still, the wall paintings clearly show Parthian influences because Mithras wears Parthian trousers, boots, and a pointed bonnet. It is known that, although the Mithras cult originated in Iran, this God was very popular with the Romans. More exciting finds were made in other buildings, like mural frescos, inscriptions, military outfits such as painted wooden shields, and a complete horse harness, also exhibited at the Museum of Damascus.

 At the bottom of these temples, a small museum has been set up. Although the best pieces are in Damascus, I am happy to see the mural marriage ceremony with priests wearing their funny-looking Phrygian hats – a copy of the original in Damascus. Here, at least, I am allowed to take a picture! Interestingly, the graffiti from the Palmyra Gate helps to better understand the real one.

A last attempt to save Dura Europos was made during the siege of the Persian Sassanids led by King Shapur I in the year 256. The local museum proudly exhibits a copy of a relief from Bishapur, Iran, portraying Shapur in state riding his horse - a man with presence. During the siege, he devised a masterly strategy when he dug tunnels underneath the city walls to undermine them. In a desperate attempt to increase their survival chances, the Romans immediately filled all the buildings and spaces behind the city walls with sand to reinforce them. At the same time, they worked with might and main to fill up the Sassanid tunnels underneath, but there were simply too many corridors and ramifications, leading to the ultimate defeat of the Romans. This is how Shapur conquered Dura Europos. He razed the city to the ground and sold its population as slaves. Part of the destroyed walls is still visible in the southwest corner. However, many survived since the Romans had choked all the buildings close to the walls with sand. Among them was the synagogue with its famous frescoes.

Dura Europos was never rebuilt and disappeared from history until it was rediscovered in 1920. Serious excavations started in 1932 when said frescoes from the synagogue were brought to light. It is pretty unique that the wall paintings display animals and people, together with a Torah shrine on the western wall, i.e., the direction of Jerusalem.

Close to the Euphrates, one cannot miss the elongated remains of the fine Seleucid Citadel, strategically set on its own outcrop, guarding the bend in the river. Such great builders! 

Walking back to the Palmyra Gate, I recognize a square Bouleuterion, but the only information I can find mentions a Baptistery on this spot; this square is supposed to be a shallow pool used by Christian believers to be baptized. The public was evidently seated on the tiers around the basin.

 And then, in January 2009,  Dura Europos made the headlines as new research confirmed that during the Persian invasion, poison gas had been used for the first time in history against the Roman defenders. This conclusion was made based on twenty Roman soldier remains at the foot of the city walls. Analysis showed the product was a mixture of bitumen and sulfur crystals set afire. The gases were directed toward the enemy using several bellows and underground chimneys. Previous speculations about this technique existed, for instance, with the Spartans during the Peloponnese War (400 BC) and from Chinese texts about warfare (500 BC). Still, the theory has just been proven. Quite unbelievable, isn't it?

[For more pictures, click on the album Cities along the Euphrates]