Dura Europos, last stop on the Euphrates

After Deir Ezzor, Rasaffa, and Halabia, I am heading for Dura Europos, Syria's most southeastern frontier garrison on the Euphrates. The landscape is as barren as the northeastern desert corner of Jordan, and it is hard to imagine that Mesopotamia once was so fertile and consequently so prosperous. Instead, I suddenly see a row of sand dunes, but so straight that they must be manmade. And they are, for these are drift-sands that accumulated against the walls of Dura Europos, the only original Hellenistic fort in the abovementioned series. Approaching from the land side, it is not apparent to appreciate the unique location as the Euphrates only reveals itself once you have penetrated the very heart of the city.

Like Apamea and Deir Ezzor, it was founded around 303 BC by Seleucos. He wanted to build a reliable control post on the Euphrates and new trade routes with his recently founded cities of Antioch-on-the-Orontes and Seleucia-on-the-Tigris. He must have remembered the lessons of his master, Alexander.

Being Hellenistic, it is no surprise that Dura Europos is set up according to the Hippodamian plan with right-angled streets around the large central Agora. The Parthians conquered the city by the end of the second century BC. They stayed till the arrival of the Romans in 165 AD. People of different origins lived in Dura Europos, as testified by papyri and parchment inscribed in Greek, Latin, Aramean, Hebrew, Syriac, the language of Hatra, Palmyrene, Persian, and Pahlavi. But it is mainly the Macedonians who left their indelible imprint on this place.

The main entrance is through the Palmyra Gate, which, although only partially preserved, gives an excellent idea of how this stronghold was conceived. The surrounding massive nine-meter-high ramparts are interrupted by a series of defense towers built, like in Halabia, with the same pink crystal-like gypsum. But it is difficult to get a good overall picture of the site since most of the city is half-buried under the sands. However, on the far left is where the Roman military camp from the third century is located, complete with the commander's palace. 

Following the main street in the direction of the Euphrates, I am pointed to the right, where most of the sixteen temples were situated, worshiped by Christians and pagans alike. The oldest synagogue of Jewish origin is among them, dating according to Aramean inscriptions to 244 AD. Every inch of its walls and ceiling were covered with wonderfully well-preserved frescoes depicting scenes of the Last Judgment. Men and animals from the oldest bible stories are illustrated with vivid images and colorful pictures. The inside of this synagogue has been entirely dismantled and moved to the Archaeological Museum of Damascus, which is worth a visit if only for this synagogue!

Besides the synagogue, there are temples dedicated to Mithras, Baal, and Adonis, proof that Jews, Christians, and pagans lived together in this multicultural city. The first traces of the Mithras Temple go back to the period 168-171, i.e., Roman times. Still, the wall paintings clearly show Parthian influences because Mithras wears Parthian trousers, boots, and a pointed bonnet. It is known that, although the Mithras cult originated in Iran, this God was very popular with the Romans. More exciting finds were made in other buildings, like mural frescos, inscriptions, military outfits such as painted wooden shields, and a complete horse harness also exhibited at the Museum of Damascus.

 At the bottom of these temples, a small museum has been set up. Although the best pieces are in Damascus, I am happy to see the mural marriage ceremony with priests wearing their funny-looking Phrygian hats – a copy of the original in Damascus. Here, at least, I am allowed to take a picture! Interestingly, the graffiti from the Palmyra Gate helps to better understand the real one.

A last attempt to save Dura Europos was made during the siege of the Persian Sassanids led by King Shapur I in the year 256. The local museum proudly exhibits a copy of a relief from Bishapur, Iran, portraying Shapur in state riding his horse - a man with presence. During the siege, he devised a masterly strategy when he dug tunnels underneath the city walls to undermine them. In a desperate attempt to increase their survival chances, the Romans immediately filled all the buildings and spaces behind the city walls with sand to reinforce them. At the same time, they worked with might and main to fill up the Sassanid tunnels underneath, but there were simply too many corridors and ramifications, leading to the ultimate defeat of the Romans. This is how Shapur conquered Dura Europos. He razed the city to the ground and sold its population as slaves. Part of the destroyed walls is still visible in the southwest corner. However, many survived since the Romans had choked all the buildings close to the walls with sand. Among them was the synagogue with its famous frescos.

Dura Europos was never rebuilt and disappeared from history until it was rediscovered in 1920. Serious excavations started in 1932 when said frescoes from the synagogue were brought to light. It is pretty unique that the wall paintings display animals and people, together with a Torah shrine on the western wall, i.e., the direction of Jerusalem.

Close to the Euphrates, one cannot miss the elongated remains of the fine Seleucid Citadel, strategically set on its own outcrop guarding the bend in the river. Such great builders! 

Walking back to the Palmyra Gate, I recognize a square Bouleuterion, but the only information I can find mentions a Baptistery on this spot; this square is supposed to be a shallow pool used by Christian believers to be baptized. The public was evidently seated on the tiers around the basin.

 And then, in January 2009,  Dura Europos made the headlines as new research confirmed that during the Persian invasion, poison gas had been used for the first time in history against the Roman defenders. This conclusion was made based on twenty Roman soldier remains at the foot of the city walls. Analysis showed the product was a mixture of bitumen and sulfur crystals set afire. The gasses were directed toward the enemy using several bellows and underground chimneys. Previous speculations about this technique existed, for instance, with the Spartans during the Peloponnese War (400 BC) and from Chinese texts about warfare (500 BC). Still, the theory has just been proven. Quite unbelievable, isn't it?

[For more pictures, click on the album Cities along the Euphrates]