Plato, more than a philosopher

Plato is a highly fascinating figure. Not only was he a student of Socrates, but he also taught Aristotle, who, in turn, passed his knowledge on to young Alexander. 

Plato, born in 427 BC, received the best education of his time. Although we know him mainly as a philosopher, he was educated in martial arts and horse riding, besides mathematics and music, painting and drawing. 

When about the age of twenty, he encountered Socrates teaching on the Agora of Athens, he realized that philosophy was a more worthy goal to pursue. 

Socrates hardly wrote anything down. We know about him from Plato and Xenophon, who are not always in agreement. Socrates preferred talking, or rather asking questions, to the point of embarrassing and irritating his audience. 

Plato followed his master until the Athenians executed him on the charge of impiety in 399 BC. He then left Athens and traveled to other philosophical centers, such as Megara and Syracuse in Sicily, and later to Egypt and Cyrene. He became a student of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Heraclitus, and concentrated on the religion and metaphysics of Egypt. 

Before the Museum of Alexandria was founded, the center of knowledge was in Heliopolis, where priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon consulted the Library that contained the history of Egypt going back thousands of years. For us, Egypt's ancient history is lost in the mists of times … How much was (still) available in Plato’s days? Probably far more than we can imagine. 

In the 380s BC, Plato returned to Athens, where he started the Academy. The philosopher educated his followers in a shrine of olive groves, sacred to the Greek hero Academos and called therefore, Academia. Plato’s school would continue to thrive till the early 6^th century AD when it was shut down by Emperor Justinian. This Byzantine emperor was determined to erase paganism for good and impose Christianity instead to regain control over the Western Roman Empire. 

Plato is best known for his Dialogues and his Letters. He contributed hugely to our Western culture and religion although few people realize his impact on monotheistic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. He was the first philosopher to mention and underscore the soul's immortality. For that reason, his work was not destroyed but accepted by the Christian religious leaders. Plato also stressed the importance of ‘objective truth’ in order to live well. 

As a result of the recent advanced imaging diagnostic techniques to read the carbonized papyri from Herculaneum (see: Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum), scholars have discovered more details about Plato’s life, of which very little is otherwise known. By virtually realigning the bits of burnt papyrus, they were able to restore the continuity of the text and obtain more information. 

The scroll revealed that Plato was sold into slavery on the island of Aegina, south of Athens, either in 404 BC when Sparta conquered the island, or in 399 BC upon the death of Socrates. It was previously and erroneously accepted that this event took place while he resided at the court of Dionysios of Syracuse in 387 BC. 

We also learned more about the final hours of Plato. While battling a fever, he listened to flute music played by a Thracian slave girl. He was still very lucid as he had the strength to criticize the girl’s lack of rhythm. A perfectionist to the end? 

Plato died in 348/347 BC, and it is now understood that he was buried in the garden of his Academia of Athens. This is very telling since the Academy is considered the world’s first university, which he founded next to the Mouseion. 

Deciphering the papyrus scrolls is a lengthy process that may well require many more years. Who knows what more we will learn?

Getting around in the Nile Delta

Speaking of the Nile Delta, we obviously mean the embouchure of the river Nile where its waters mingle with those of the Mediterranean Sea. 

The problem, however, is to picture the ancient cities and harbors along that coastline. There are several elements to be taken into account. 

Historically, we best know the role played by Alexandria and Pelusium, situated on opposite sides of the Delta, roughly 250 kilometers apart. 

[From Pinterest]

Pelusium, about 30 kilometers south of modern Port Said, was looking to the East. This city was the entrance gate for conquerors coming from the east. Alexander entered Egypt through Pelusium, as did the Hittites and Persians before him. For the Egyptian pharaohs, it was their gateway to the lands on the eastern Mediterranean. The city played an essential role as a transit station for the goods coming from and going to the lands around the Red Sea (see: The fame of elusive Pelusium). 

Alexander founded Alexandria after he returned from visiting the oracle in Siwah. It arose on the most westerly end of the Delta, on the Canopic Branch of the Nile. The city was intentionally oriented towards Crete and Greece, creating a close trading route with his homeland.

The Greeks had already established thriving trade emporiums in the area. Best known is Naucratis, settled as early as the 7th century BC (see: Egypt, land of the free for ancient Greeks?) As mighty Egypt allowed them to operate a lucrative business, even granting them special privileges, Naucratis eventually became a melting pot of Greek and Egyptian art and culture where they lived in harmony with each other. In its heyday, it was home to at least 16,000 people who appear to have lived in high-rise buildings three to six floors high, not unlike the mud-brick houses we encounter today in Yemen. 

Archaeological research has found proof that the Canopic Branch of the Nile was navigable all the way down to the heart of the city. However, Herodotus gave us the impression that the freight from the ships arriving from the Mediterranean was to be transshipped into barges which would sail to reach Naucratis (see: An update about Naucratis). 

A look at the above map illustrates that vessels heading for the harbor of Naucratis had to sail an extra distance from the Mediterranean. Alexandria was obviously more accessible. 

[Mosaic from Madaba, Jordan, showing the Nile with Pelusium]

Another major port was Heracleion, which the ancient Egyptians called Thonis, founded back in the 8th century BC. Known more commonly as Thonis-Heracleion, the site has been discovered under ten meters of mud near modern Abukir Bay (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt and Underwater excavation at Heracleion still ongoing). The above map shows Thonis/Thanis on a more easterly branch of the Nile, closer to Pelusium. Recent excavations have exposed 64 ancient beautifully preserved shipwrecks and more than 700 anchors. Heracleion reached its peak between the 6th and the 4th century BC. 

Halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, Ptolemy II Philadelphus founded Taposiris Magna around 280-270 BC. The harbor played a significant role on the trading route for the goods from the east arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from the Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). Alexandria, built on the headland between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis, claimed taxes on the goods that transited through the city until the 7th century AD at least (see: Taposiris Magna in Egypt). 

The Egyptians had founded the city of Marea, as highlighted on the map, in the 7^th century BC. It actually lies on the southern shore of Lake Mareotis, modern Lake Maryut, and 45 kilometers southwest of Alexandria. Speaking of strategic locations! 

The last major city in the Nile Delta is Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, which Alexander saw in full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks (see: Buried secrets of Heliopolis)! 

This religious center was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. 

For centuries, every single Pharaoh made it to the sacred city of Heliopolis, where the gods would confer him their power. When Alexander, who fully understood the importance of this ritual, followed suit, he was accepted by the Egyptians as their new Pharaoh.

Buried secrets of Heliopolis

Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, was the religious center of Egypt for more than 3,000 years. Unfortunately, the only surviving testimony of this glorious past is the obelisk of the Temple of Ra-Atum on the outskirts of modern Cairo. This 21-meter-high red granite needle was erected by Sesostris I, who reigned from 1971 until 1926 BC.

What brings me to Heliopolis is Alexander, of course. After entering Egypt at Pelusium, his fleet sailed up the Nile to Memphis while he led his troops on foot to Heliopolis. Arrian simply states that the king arrived at Heliopolis and proceeded from there to Memphis to make his offerings to Apis, the sacred bull.

These lines raise many questions. In my mind, it would be evident that Alexander would seek the blessing of the gods to be enthroned as the new pharaoh of Egypt. Strangely enough, I found nothing in our historical sources to confirm this. Moreover, there is a general tendency to place his official proclamation as pharaoh in Memphis instead.

The fact remains that Alexander saw the City of the Sun still in its full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks! For centuries, Heliopolis had been the old religious center for the Egyptians. Every pharaoh made it to the sacred city where the gods would confer him their power. So, what happened? Why did this practice change? And more importantly, when did this change occur?

According to the Egyptians, in the beginning, there was the Ocean. Atum was the first god who existed, but nobody knew. Atum rose from the primeval waters and settled on a hill he had created. From his body emerged the first godly couple: Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of fire. They, in turn, gave birth to Geb, the god of war, and Nut, the goddess of heaven. Their children were Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys. These nine gods and goddesses ruled the world, and much later, they transferred their power to the pharaoh. This is how the legality of the king was tied to his ancestral link to the gods. The sun, Ra, of course, occupied the primary role. Hence the name Atum-Ra or Ra-Atum is used when referring to the first god.

The oldest inscription to that effect carries the name of Djoser, who, in the first half of the 2700^th century BC, recognized the importance of Heliopolis and built several monuments in that city. About 2100 BC, Thebes erected its principal temple to Amon-Re, inspired by the largest temple of Heliopolis. When he became pharaoh in 1353 BC, Akhenaton ordered the destruction of all the existing temples in his empire, except those of Heliopolis.

Another unusual situation developed when the Nubian Piankhi conquered Egypt in 744 BC. As a non-Egyptian, he definitely needed to be recognized and legitimized as the new dynastic ruler. Heliopolis still played its role and confirmed Piankhi as the new pharaoh of Egypt.

The Persians, who invaded the country in 525 BC, had no intention whatsoever to submit to the Egyptian gods. They plundered and raised the sacred enclosure by one square kilometer. Somehow Heliopolis managed to recover and build or rebuild several temples. The last pharaoh in Heliopolis's records is Nectanebo in 379 BC. He could avoid a new Persian attack in 374/373 BC. His son ruled for only two years, as his brother betrayed him and put his son on the throne. This was Nectanebo II, who was defeated by the Persians at Pelusium in 343 BC. This was the situation when Alexander arrived in Egypt in 332 BC to become the new pharaoh.

From the above history, we know for sure that at the end of the 4^th century BC, Heliopolis still functioned as the sacred city where the new pharaoh was confirmed in his functions. It does not sound too far sought to assume that Alexander went to Heliopolis just for that purpose. Why else would he have traveled that way? If his intention was not to be confirmed as pharaoh in the City of the Sun, he could have sailed down to Memphis directly instead.

Arrian's reference to Alexander's sacrifices to Apis in Memphis may make us assume that the ceremony was tied to his official recognition as pharaoh. But that is not necessarily the case, for this protocol could have been performed in both locations. On the other hand, it is plausible that Arrian living in the 2^nd century AD, mentions Memphis because, in his days, Heliopolis no longer played any role. It has been established that Alexandria eventually became Egypt's political capital under Ptolemaic rule and Memphis' religious capital. Heliopolis was slowly abandoned, it seems. The reason for this shift remains obscure.

The city of Heliopolis is enigmatic because close to nothing remains for us to see. The constructions that survived after the site was abandoned in favor of Memphis were mainly taken down, and the ready construction material served to build medieval Cairo. The stones used at Heliopolis came from a local quarry of quartzite that appeared in a rather unique shading of colors. The top layer was beige, the middle one dark brown, and the bottom pink. Despite this gradation, it is nearly impossible to track down these blocks as they were randomly inserted in medieval and later buildings. Heliopolis thus emptied of its walls, and statues eventually disappeared from the surface of the earth.

Recently Heliopolis has been in the news because the empty parcel of land next to the lonely obelisk is to be turned into a building site. Suddenly, rescue excavations are taking place to map the scant remains still hidden in this tiny section of the ancient city. I'm afraid the results will be meager, but every little bit of information will contribute to creating a valuable picture of this majestic old city.

Another aspect that deserves to be underscored is that Heliopolis was a notorious learning center. Its so-called House of Life was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. However, it is unclear whether Heliopolis and Alexandria shared a similar interest or if the House of Life was transferred entirely to Alexandria to become its Museum (see also: Libraries in Antiquity, a short overview).

The ultimate fate of Heliopolis remains obscure because no systematic excavations could be carried out underneath modern Cairo. Also, many decorative elements from Heliopolis have been moved elsewhere.

 The Ptolemies brought many sphinxes from Sun City to Alexandria. Obelisks were an eye-catcher that impressed the world, and they were carried away as booty. Italy, with its Roman heritage, may possess the most significant collection. Rome, for instance, has examples standing in front of the Pantheon, at the center of the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza Montecitorio, outside their central train station, and in front of the Basilica of the Vatican. Florence displays an obelisk in the Boboli Gardens of the Palazzo Pitti. One of "Cleopatra's Needles" arrived in London from Alexandria, and another traveled to New York to be re-erected between Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Istanbul has yet another obelisk standing at the center of the ancient hippodrome.

If such widespread plunder has been traced for the obelisks and the sphinxes, who knows what happened to Heliopolis' rich collection of statues, reliefs, and other decorative elements!