Knowledge about atoms in Alexander’s days

The knowledge of people in antiquity, and in this case, of Alexander the Great, never ceases to amaze me.

This time, I came across the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus, who lived in the 5th century BC. The information about this brilliant mind, often called the father of modern science, is very scanty. Some claim he was born in Abdera, in modern Thracian Greece, around 460 BC, whereas others state that he was born in Miletus in 490 BC. His death is also shrouded in mystery, as some sources tell us that he died at the age of 104 or maybe 109. Well, we should not be picky about such details, should we?

Critical, however, is his theory that the universe is made up of tiny “atoms”. On this topic also, historians differ as a similar theory is being attributed to the contemporary philosopher Leucippus, although each one is based on a different principle. Nonetheless, the very concept of ‘atoms’ became the staple of the modern scientific tradition.

According to Democritus, everything in the universe is composed of “atoms”, a kind of invisible building stones. Atoms are in constant motion and are separated by empty space. Their number is endless, and they all differ in shape and size. Noticeable is that Democritus described atoms in different shapes, sizes, and arrangements, connected to each other with some kind of hooks and eyes, balls, and sockets. Most importantly, the concept provided an explanation as to why the idea of a void was necessary in nature. Unlike philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle, who were more concerned about the soul, Democritus looked at the world from the practical point of view.

Democritus came from a wealthy and noble family that had strong ties with the Persian King Xerxes. Eventually, he was influenced and/or instructed by Chaldeans and Magi. Democritus traveled extensively to Asia and Egypt. He may have gone as far as India and Ethiopia. On the road, he may have met Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, and Socrates, although his real mentor was Leucippus of Miletus, who shared his theory of atomism.

As such, Democritus was an incredibly fascinating figure, but when we realize that he lived a good century before Alexander, our view of antiquity takes an entirely different twist. If only because of his teaching by Aristotle, we have no reason at all to doubt that the king was totally familiar with this atomic theory (and many others for that matter).

We still like to file our knowledge away in separate boxes by country or ideology, while in reality, the world in antiquity was at least as vast as ours is today.

Those who want to dig deeper into the atomic theory and the role played by Democritus may want to read this article published in The Universe Today.

[Picture of Democritus from The Universe Today]

What is the Peraia of Samothrace?

The Peraia of Samothrace translates as “the land opposite Samothrace” and refers to a series of colonies founded by Samothrace on the mainland north of the island, in this case along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thrace and more precisely between the Hebrus River and Mount Ismaros. It includes several settlements such as Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, founded from the 6^th century BC onward, whereas Tempira and Charakoma date from Roman times. Not all of these towns have been located or excavated, meaning we are moving in rather uncharted territory.

The area is interesting, however, because it was conquered by Philip II of Macedonia when he prepared his invasion of Asia. This allowed Alexander to march unopposed through this part of Thracia when he set out to cross the Hellespont after his father’s assassination.

Zone, which for some time was thought to be Mesimvria as described by Herodotus, is among the most significant towns that reached its peak during the 5^th-4^th century BC. Its decline set in after Alexander’s death with the constant Macedonian wars, until it became part of the Roman Empire, after which the city was abandoned during the 5^th century AD. Today, this archaeological site goes by the double name of Zone-Mesembria.

Excavations have brought to light Zone’s city walls as well as the smaller Hellenistic walls from that period when the city had shrunk to a square area in the southwest corner. Besides private houses and streets following the Hippodamian plan, the two most remarkable buildings are the Temple of Apollo and the House of the Amphorae.

Not much of the temple from the 6^th century BC is left standing. It measures 15 x 9 meters with a small pronaos and a cella resting on a three-stepped crepis. It has been established that it stood inside a larger complex (35 x 45 meters) with a paved courtyard and surrounded by a Stoa. The recent discovery of about 300 potsherds in and around this Temple of Apollo, however, makes it one of the most important discoveries because these potsherds carried inscriptions in Thracian. The language of the Thracians, which is thought to be closely related to Greek and uses Greek characters, is not known and has not yet been deciphered. Archaeologists have their work cut out for this is the largest collection of Thracian writings ever found.

The House of the Amphorae contains another unique treasure: a puzzling floor made from 188 amphorae turned upside down. They were aligned in such a way that all the pointed bottoms stood at the same level, notwithstanding the size of each amphora. This construction, dating from as early as the 6^th-5^th century BC, represents a rare method to protect the earthen floor against the dampness of the underlying soil. It sounds unbelievable that people some 2,500 years ago knew how to avoid groundwater destroying the foundations and floors of their residences – not to mention the problem with arthritis and rheumatism! The remains of a wide water gutter next to the house clearly illustrate the humidity problem.

In at least two locations, we can find remains of old wine presses. These were simple affairs using a lid on a huge jar or a slab above a quarried rectangular pit riddled with holes. The process was still known in the last century when people used to trample the grapes with their feet, squeezing the juice that would drip into the container underneath as the pulp would stay on top of the lid.

The fortification walls of Zone are interesting elements as well. They were reinforced by towers, and a close look at the walls reveals how different sections were built using different techniques – probably rebuilt and reinforced over time. The West Gate, the only entrance to the city, has also been found and cleared.

Zone is beyond doubt a town like many in southeastern Thrace, and its excavation has shed light on the daily life of its inhabitants from the Classical era to Hellenistic and even Roman times. The town provides an excellent insight into its wealth with the large houses, wine production centers, and kilns. This is not surprising given that the country was located on important communication routes (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara). In an earlier blog about the site of Halka Bunar in Bulgaria (see: Macedonia of Philip was also part of Bulgaria), I mentioned the roads that ran from the western Balkans to the coast of the Black Sea and Byzantium in the east, passing through Serdica and Philippopolis, and from Abdera and Mesembria across the Rhodope Mountains all the way to Seuthopolis.

Today, this part of the world has lost its importance and seems to regress into the oblivion of time. With civilizations rising and falling, roads and cities with their cultural significance and economic wealth inevitably leave their imprint. We only have to make the effort to look for it.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Zone-Mesembria]

The many colonies of Miletus

The colonization by the Greeks, either from mainland Greece or from Asia Minor remains a fascinating subject. I touched on the topic before when discussing Magna Graecia (see: Magna Graecia, the forgotten Greek legacy) and this time I will concentrate on the shores of the Black Sea, the Pontus Euxinus of antiquity.

The first settlers arrived in the second half of the 7^th century BC mainly from Ionia but by far the most prominent group came from Miletus. Ancient authors go as far as claiming that the city possessed between 75 and 90 colonies but this number does not immediately refer to cities founded and populated by Miletus since they did not have enough manpower to occupy so many settlements. In fact, Miletus acted as their organizer and the initial true number of colonies was about 25.

The reason for people from Asia Minor to emigrate is complex but one of the main causes to relocate was the westward expansion of the Persian Empire which even attacked Greece itself. The Ionians were facing a simple choice to either submit to the Persians with the risk of being killed or enslaved or to leave their homeland for new horizons.

The Actual Archaeology Magazine of May 2011 published a very interesting article, “Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea” written by Gosha R. Tsetskhladze about the origins of a great number of settlements on the shores of the Back Sea including both sides of the Cimmerian Bosporus.

Among the first settlements, we find Berezan (modern Borysthenites) founded in the third quarter of the 7th century BC, and Tangarog (on the Sea of Azov) in the last third of the 7^th century BC (completely destroyed by the sea). Other colonies were located on the western shore of the Black Sea like Histria (at the mouth of the Danube) in ca. 630 BC, Apollonia Pontica (modern Sozopol in Bulgaria) in ca. 610 BC, and Tomis (modern Constanta in Romania) at the end of the first quarter of the 6^th century BC. On the southern shoreline, we find Sinope (modern Sinop in Turkey) from the late 7^th century BC and Amisos (modern Samsun in Turkey) from ca. 564 BC. Olbia (in modern Ukraine) was settled on the northern side of the Black Sea by the end of the first quarter of the 6^th century BC.

Between 580 and 560 BC, Miletus colonized new territories on the Kerch peninsula (the western side of the Cimmerian Bosporus) and the Taman peninsula (the eastern side of the Cimmerian Bosporus). On the European side of the straight, we find cities like Panticapaeum, Nymphaeum, Theodosia, Myrmekion, and Tyritake (all on the Crimean peninsula); and on the Asian side, we name Kepoi, Patraeus, Corocondame (destroyed by the sea) and Hermonassa (joined colony of Miletus and Mytilene).

In the wake of Cyrus’ westwards conquests during which he took the stronghold of Sardes in 546 BC, the Black Sea area was once again flooded by a new wave of Ionians – this time by people not exclusively from Miletus. The Megarians and the Boeotians founded Heraklea in 554 BC on the south shores, and Miletus founded Odessos (modern Varna in Bulgaria) on the western shore. In turn, those colonies that had settled around the Black Sea created many small settlements of their own.

Around that same time, new cities like Tyras and Nikonian appeared together with some fifty rural settlements under their control. Non-Milesians founded Gorgippia (modern Anapa in Russia), Toricos (near modern Gelendzhik in Russia), Akra (in Russia, destroyed by the sea), Porthmeus (in Russia), and several other colonies on the Cimmerian Bosporus, and around 542 BC the Teians established the colony of Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula (as well as the city of Abdera in Thracia).

Ionians settled even further north along the Black Sea coast, and by 422/1 BC, Herakleia Pontus founded a small town that would become the later Chersonesus (near modern Sevastopol in Crimea). The Milesians, once again, founded Colchis (modern western Georgia), who in turn established the cities of Phasis, Gyenos, and Dioscuria, and two more settlements, Pichvnari and Tsikhisdziri. The last wave arrived when the Ionians were defeated in their revolt against Persia. Mesambria (modern Nessebar in Bulgaria) was founded on the western shore of the Black Sea by the Chalkedonians and Byzantines, and in western Crimea, the Ionians established Kerkinitis and Kalos Limen, which later became part of Chersonesus.

[Picture from Bosporan Kingdom growth map-pt.svg:] 

In the days of Alexander and even during the reign of his father Philip, we read about ships bringing corn from the Black Sea to Athens. This leads us to believe that this traffic existed already in earlier centuries. It has been established, however, that the earliest ships loaded with corn circulated at the end of the 5^th/beginning of the 4^th century BC, and that they were not meant for Athens but for the island of Aegina and the Peloponnese instead. Except in case of emergency, it appears – according to the abovementioned article - Athens was perfectly capable of feeding its citizens.

With so many sites spread over so many countries around the Black Sea (from Turkey to Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Georgia), one can wonder how much of these colonies still exist or have been excavated and, if so, to what extent. Yet the fact remains that this geographical knowledge was part of Alexander’s baggage and his Companions. The ancient world was much and much larger than what we like to believe!

The heavy colonization shows that emigration is not a modern phenomenon but existed in eons past. Famine may have been a major reason for people to leave hearth and home, but generally, it was and is a war that triggers the displacement of entire populations. In any case, it is quite amazing to see how many peoples were on the move between the 7^th and the 5^th century BC. In my opinion, these three centuries of constant emigration explain - at least in part – the general Greek resentment against the Persians. Their occupation of Greece and the burning of the Acropolis is, of course, another valid reason for their grudge.

Alexander sets out to cross to Asia

When Alexander left Pella in the spring of 334 BC, the city of Thessaloniki, about 46 km further east, did not exist, meaning that his army marched through the plains to near modern Lagkadàs. From there, we can choose between two roads towards Amphipolis: the freeway north of Lake Koroneia and Lake Volvi, or the local road following these lakes' southern banks. Both roads are enjoyable to drive. They give a vivid idea of the terrain crossed by Alexander and, before him, by his father, King Philip II, during his repeated battles on the Chalcidice peninsula.

Alexander didn't set out from Pella with the entire army, only with his Macedonians. The delegations from the northern Balkan tribes joined him at Amphaxatis near the mouth of the Axios River. In Amphipolis, Parmenion met his king with the contingents from Greece and the Greek mercenaries, where Alexander's fleet connected with his land forces. The entire army that must have counted nearly 30,000 men and 5,000 cavalry, marched towards Abdera and Maroneia, both in Greek hands. After crossing the Hebrus River, Alexander led his troops to Sestos on the Chersonese peninsula in European Turkey, where he arrived twenty days after leaving home. Here, he had his first glance at Asia lying across the Dardanelles, known as the Hellespont in antiquity, which formed a significant natural barrier for any invading army.

The crossing of the Hellespont, done in the opposite direction a good century early by the Persian armies of Darius I and Xerxes, cannot be underestimated. The current at the narrowest point is extremely swift as the water is squeezed between the low continental banks.

Here, I pick up history when traveling with Peter Sommer In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. It's a trip I had the immense pleasure of following by walking, driving, and sailing for almost three weeks, the best days of my life! Peter himself had walked the entire distance from Istanbul to Iskenderun near the Syrian border, searching for Alexander's path, and he read the landscape like no other – a blessing beyond description!

Before crossing the Hellespont, we stop at a plant that processes shells, where I can walk to the very edge of the water to have a first look at the blue landmass of Asia on the other side. A thrilling experience for this must have been what Alexander saw 2,500 years ago. A little further down the Chersonese peninsula, Peter points at a wide flat between the low rolling hills - the plain of Arisbe - where Alexander's army set up camp pending their ferry to the other side. My imagination immediately gets to work, pitching tents, lighting campfires, building stockades where soldiers keep watch, and adding the sound of men talking, yelling, singing, or cursing. What a place!

My crossing is not in style with any of Alexander's 160 triremes that moved back and forth to transport men and beasts over several days, but instead, I take a regular ferry from Kilitbahir to Çanakkale. Once onboard, I look back and forth. Behind me are the remains of Ottoman forts with a proud Turkish flag on top, and ahead of me, the busy quays of the city. This spot was the land where Alexander jumped from his ship in full armor and threw his spear into Asian soil, taking Asia as the spear-won territory from the very start.

Like Alexander, we first visit Troy, home of Homer's Trojan War, where the young king's heroes had fought and died. Not much remained of the old city in his days, but its history and legends were still very much alive. During my visit, I was led by an expert who had worked closely with Manfred Korfmann. The archaeologist dedicated the last 16 years of his life to Troy. I receive a simplified view of the nine successive layers of Troy built one on top of the other over the three thousand years of its existence, but I still cannot sort it out. The different layers of the city are labeled with numbers to help the visitor locate each time frame, but then the layers get mixed up or disappear. In the end, all I see is a variety of walls fitting certain buildings at some time in history. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann in 1871 is general knowledge, and his so-called Treasure of Priam turned out to be at least one thousand years older. Schliemann had read Homer's Iliad, and so had Alexander, who slept with a copy of the book with annotations made by Aristotle. Both men were inspired by the Iliad, although in very different ways and for different reasons. But in the end, Troy is Troy, the city of Alexander's hero, Achilles.

The guide then takes me to an odd-looking hill with scant remains. This is the spot where the Temple of Athena stood. Here, Alexander made a gift of his armor in exchange for some weapons from the Trojan War that could have belonged to Achilles – or at least that is probably what Alexander wanted to believe. I stare at the hardened soil between the stones that barely outline the temple walls, and I wonder whether or not I am standing in the space where Alexander once stood. The temple clings to the cliff's edge, offering an unreal but peaceful view over a plain. In his days, this was mainly a sea.

The cherry on the cake for that day is the most surprising. Our minivan drives off from Troy over local roads and suddenly stops at the end of a dirt road in the middle of what seems to be an orchard. From here, we continue on foot through waist-high barley fields, at whose edges I discover a tumulus. It is the Tomb of Achilles! For a moment, I'm speechless. How exciting! I have seen many tumuli in the landscape earlier today, but hearing that this one is actually the hero's burial site is extremely exciting. According to some, Achilles' tomb also contains his faithful friend Patroclus's remains, making the place even more special as Alexander saw himself as Achilles and his dearest boyhood friend Hephaistion as Patroclus. Both men cut their hair and laid a wreath on this tomb. Afterward, they ran a race around it, stripped of all their clothes. The picture certainly fuels my imagination!

We all rush to the top, where some rough stones crown the summit for no reason. What a place to visit, to touch, to experience. The view this late in the afternoon is blessed with the delicate light of diminishing sunlight, covering the landscape with a soft glow. I can actually see a good stretch of the seashore. Peter kindly pinpoints the very bay where the Greek fleet was hidden from view by the Trojans while awaiting the city gates to be opened by the soldiers hidden inside the famous Trojan Horse. So much history has happened on these grounds! What a place to be.

From here, Alexander rejoined his troops, which had all crossed the Hellespont into Asia by now. He soon would have to face the Persian enemy (see: The Battle of the Granicus), and I'll pick up his traces tomorrow.