The importance of Perinthus

In antiquity, Perinthus was of strategic importance as it controlled Athens’ grain route from the Black Sea through the Bosporus. Each spring Athenian ships loaded with wheat from the Danube and Maritza basins sailed down via Byzantium, the Hellespont, and further across the Aegean to Athens. 

Perinthus, near the modern city of Tekirdağ, had two harbors in the East and the West side of the peninsula both used for commercial and military purposes. So far, the remains of a shipwreck have been located at a depth of 60 meters, and the finding is under investigation. More of the city’s buildings are being exposed, including an Acropolis with large temples and a theater. Besides the many small artifacts such as bits of jewelry and statuettes, there also is a necropolis.

[Picture from Sozcu.com.tr]

In late 352 BC, King Philip of Macedonia was asked to assist a coalition of Central Thracia, consisting of Byzantium, and Perinthus in besieging the nearby fortress town of Heraion Teichos that threatened Perinthus (see: Philip is bouncing back). He marched his army east, took the town, and returned it to Perinthus, presumably its original owner. 

Philip’s presence in the area was a threat to the Athenians but also to the Persians aiming to control Perinthus. In 340 BC, the Persians ordered Pixodarus of Caria, their ally in Halicarnassus, to help Perinthus revolt against Philip. The operation was not successful. 

Pixodarus then changed his mind as Persia was in turmoil after the murder of King Artaxerxes III. He thought it wise to seek Philip’s support instead. He offered his daughter, Ada, in marriage to Philip’s retarded son Arrhidaeus. The pact was accepted. 

However, Alexander felt left out and decided to act on his own, offering himself as a marital candidate. When Philip got vent of this maneuver behind his back, the agreement with Pixodarus was called off. Philip seriously reprimanded his son by exiling several of his closest friends from Pella (see: Pella, the birthplace of Alexander). 

By 188 BC, Perinthus fell under the rule of Pergamon until the Romans took over in 129 BC. By the end of the 2^nd century AD, they used the port as a main hub to ship their troops between the Euphrates and the Danube fronts. On the other hand, Perinthus had an important connection with the Via Militaris that ran west to Philippopolis, Serdica, and Viminacium. From here, the Via Egnatia led to Thessaloniki, Dyrrhachion, and Brundisium. 

Based on inscriptions from the late 2^nd century AD, it has been established that the provincial governors of Thracia had a residence in Perinthus. 

[Map from Stilus.nl]

In 286 AD, Emperor Diocletian renamed the city Heracleia to become a state capital. He may well have built a palace here as the outline of the ruins indicates a similarity with his palace in Nicomedia.

Under Constantine in 330 AD, Heracleia was supplanted by Byzantium which was renamed Constantinople. 

In the end, Perinthus lived a long and prosperous history thanks to its strategic location with ideal access to the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as inland Anatolia, and Egypt. Inevitably, it became a multicultural center populated by different peoples all speaking their own language. That sounds very close to today’s praise of Istanbul joining Europe and Asia. 

Polygyros in Chalcidice

Polygyros in Chalcidice is in the news since its Archaeological Museum has reopened after being closed for twelve years to upgrade it to today's standards. 

Chalcidice is the three-fingered peninsula just east of Thessaloniki in Northern Greece, famous for its exotic beaches and natural landscapes. It is a popular vacation destination for people from Balkan countries, Austria, and Germany. 

Polygyros is situated at the peninsula's center, with easy access to notorious antique sites like Olynthus, Potidea, and Stagira. It is also close to the narrow where King Xerxes I of Persia dug a canal across the most easterly finger (Mount Athos Peninsula) during the Second Persian War in 480 BC (see: Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle). 

I vividly remember visiting the Museum of Polygyros when I toured around Chalcidice. I was determined to see the arrowheads from Olynthus (see: Olynthus and its houses), with their unique inscription ΦΙΛΙΠΠO (Philippou), meaning from Philip. It had taken Philip of Macedonia nearly two years to conquer Olynthus, and his army apparently had quite a sense of humor. The siege ended in 348 BC, after which Philip razed the city to the ground. 

Another treasure at the museum is the surviving part of Philip's treaty with the Chalcideans. Alarmed by Philip's policy after he occupied Amphipolis in 357 BC, the Chalcidean allies and the Olynthians concluded a treaty with Philip against Athens, who had refused an earlier proposition. To seal their agreement on the treaty's terms, the two parties solemnly swore by Zeus, Gaia, Helios, and Poseidon. 

Three copies of this treaty were made, and the Chalcideans would display theirs at the Temple of Artemis in Olynthus, and Philip would do the same in the Temple of Zeus in Dion. They jointly would exhibit a third copy in Delphi after having it ratified by the gods. 

Strolling further through this small museum, I discovered several artifacts worth my attention. There was, for instance, a terracotta Niké from Sane, 6^th century BC, a lion spout from the Temple of Ammon-Zeus in Kallithea, 5^th century BC, and a piece of cornice from an archaic sanctuary in Stagira, 6^th century BC. Last but not least, an exciting collection of silver and copper coins that was unearthed in Stagira, mainly carrying effigies of Macedonian kings. There were also coins from other cities like Akanthos (modern Ierissos), Sermyle, Skione, and Ouranopolis on the Chalcidice, and from more distant Amphipolis, Pella, Thessaloniki, Corinth, etc. 

These treasures may be dwarfed in the museum that has been enlarged to accommodate an extensive donation of more than one thousand artifacts. The generous benefactor is Iraklis Lambropoulos, who donated the collection his father, Ioannis, had gathered in the 1930s. In fact, he gave it to the Greek State, provided it would be displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Polygyros. 

Today's visitor will see finding from excavations carried out throughout Chalcidice dating from the Palaeolithic to the Archaic, Classic, Hellenistic, and Roman eras. Special attention is drawn to an unfinished kouros, which may have escaped my attention or is entirely new. Noteworthy is also a marble head of Dionysos from Aphytos, 4^th century BC, two marble grave statues from the Heroon of Stratoni, 1^st century BC, and the artifacts unearthed in Olynthus and its cemetery. 

It is obvious that I should visit this museum the next time I am in Chalcidice.

Cohabitation of metro and museum

The story is not new. Metro lines have been constructed in many capital cities for the past decennia. Excavating the layers covering ancient settlements inevitably led to new discoveries. 

This was the case in Istanbul, Athens and Thessaloniki, Rome and Naples, Sofia (ancient Serdica), Plovdiv (ancient Philippopolis), and many others. In all cases, the finds yielded remains of temples, agoras, private houses and workshops, mosaics, coins, pottery, jewelry, etc. However, each city contributed in its own way to enrich our archaeological inheritance. 

In Istanbul, the construction of the Marmara Undersea Metro Line revealed a large section of ancient ports along the Bosporus, including ships of varied sizes from the 5^th to the 11^th century. The largest concentration of 37 shipwrecks dates from the 6^th and 7^th centuries AD. 

[Vaulted Eridanos River at metro station, Athens]

Athens exposed parts of its old city walls and the still flowing Eridanos River that runs through the Kerameikos, the ancient necropolis. The metro line between Athens and Piraeus yielded a great number of surprises of its own (see: Exposing the Hellenistic past of Piraeus). 

Thessaloniki surprised us with its ancient main street, the Decumanus Maximus, and the Via Egnatia, besides several necropolises (see: Archaeological finds at the Metro of Thessaloniki and Thessaloniki continues writing history). 

In Naples, archaeologists were able to retrace the ancient coastline thanks to a variety of shipwrecks. They excavated an important thermal bath complex, remains of the commercial area around the Greek agora, several houses with their atrium, and the Decumanus Maximus (see: The harbor of Roman Naples uncovered).

Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, is no exception: Evidence of antiquity can be clearly seen at the Serdica Station, which exhibits a wealth of unearthed Thracian and Roman ruins and modern architecture.” (quoted from Wikipedia).

Plovdiv, ancient Philippopolis, is another of those capital cities turned upside down by recent archaeological excavations (see: Plans enough to dig out Philippopolis). 

Rome lately made headlines during metro works. Ancient Roman barracks from the 2^nd century AD were discovered some nine meters below today’s street level. The ruins count 39 rooms, and many still display mosaics and frescoes. Following suit with similar situations in Greece and Turkey, authorities plan to incorporate the barracks into a large metro/museum structure. The station is located between the Coliseum and the Forum Romanum, along Line C, which is still under construction.

[Metro Louvre-Rivoli, Paris]

Nowadays, all major cities need more and more to revert to traveling by metro. As the majority of those towns have been built over and on top of ancient settlements, it is inevitable to hit remains from eons past. The municipalities share the most important artifacts with their local museums, but it is an excellent idea to create mini museums or exhibition showcases at the places where the pieces were found!

Paris may have been the first to display copies of telling artifacts from the Louvre. It is a true pleasure to spend time at the telling metro stops in the cities mentioned above and more. 

Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

The Pantheon in Rome is recognized as the best-preserved Roman construction in the world. This statement, however, brings me back to Alexander and his Mausoleum in Alexandria, as discussed in my earlier blog, Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander. 

I explained how Alexander’s tomb inspired later kings and rulers to build their own Mausoleum. The same circular shape was declined in different ways, as described in said blog. However, the Pantheon in Rome used very distinct raw materials for its construction that were not available in the days of the Ptolemies when Alexander’s tomb was erected.  

The surviving Pantheon still makes a statement today, and its cupola resting on top of a circular supporting wall has puzzled architects and archaeologists for centuries. Today’s thorough analysis has shed new light on this monument. 

A temple-like front counting 16 monolith Corinthian columns gives access to the Pantheon proper with a diameter of 43.3 meters. The inscription on the front of the temple portico reading that Agrippa, the right arm of Augustus, built this Pantheon is misleading. Recent research has established that Augustus himself ordered the construction of the earliest Pantheon in 27 BC, which had a slightly wider façade. It faced his Mausoleum less than one kilometer away, built one year earlier, in 28 BC. It is noteworthy to keep in mind that both monuments stood outside the ancient city. 

This first Pantheon, dedicated to all the gods, was destroyed in the fire of Rome in 80 AD. Domitian rebuilt it soon enough, but it was burnt again in 110 AD. By that time, both Augustus and Agrippa were long dead. No reason – yet - to put Agrippa’s name on the façade. 

About ten years later, Hadrian built a new Pantheon on top of the charred remains of the previous versions. His building was made to last, and it did. The circular wall is six meters thick and robust enough to support the copula, 40 meters above the ground. The oculus, the opening at the center of the cupola, has a diameter of 8.70 meters. This opening, together with the rows of alcoves inside this cupola, helps to reduce its enormous weight. 

Examining the thin bricks covering the inside and outside concrete walls of the rotunda, scholars discovered that most were stamped with the name of Emperor Hadrian. The cement inside this 6-meter-thick wall is of a unique mix, using lava dust and fine lava gravel. This mixture was so strong that it was used henceforward all over the Roman Empire for the aqueducts, bridges, and other monumental buildings. As an extra, this cement was also waterproof and fireproof. Looking at the outside walls, one will notice many arches incorporated in its design, and their role was to reinforce the walls even further. 

This close examination of the Pantheon leads to further investigation of Hadrian's many monuments. The first visit goes to the Villa Hadriana in Tivoli, just outside Rome. The construction of this villa, which covered an area larger than Pompeii, probably started around 120 AD. It counted at least one thousand rooms and had an underground parking space for his chariots. A closer inspection revealed that the circular building on the central island, which is said to be the personal quarters of Hadrian, has the same diameter as the Pantheon. Speaking of megalomania! 

It transpires that Hadrian was not much loved by the Romans, although he was widely venerated elsewhere in the Empire. Trying to impose himself, he used Agrippa as a publicity stunt on the front of the Pantheon. In his days, 126 AD, the rotunda functioned as a court building. We’ll remember that Hadrian started the construction of his Mausoleum, the later Castel Sant’Angelo, in 130 BC (see: Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander). 

Stepping inside the Pantheon, any modern visitor will stop staring in awe at the oculus above their heads. Inevitably, the rain would fall onto the colorful marble floor. This floor was slightly tilted to drain the water through small apertures in the marble slabs and washed away in underground canals. By sunny weather, on the other hand, the light beam would illuminate the niches that once held statues and highlight parts of the marble floor. Hadrian had his statue in a prominent place inside the Pantheon. On April 24, the anniversary of the foundation of Rome, the sun would cover Emperor Hadrian with its godly rays. 

In 609 AD, the Pantheon was converted into a Christian Church dedicated to the Virgin Mary and all the Martyr Saints. This saved the precious building for posterity. In later centuries, it served as a model for the Basilica of the Vatican, Italy; the Panthéon in Paris, France; the Rotunda of the University of Virginia, USA; and many other public buildings all over the world. 

The Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki

Fitting the same list of circular buildings is the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki, which is still standing. Emperor Galerius built it in 306 AD as his Mausoleum, although it may have served as a Mausoleum for Constantine the Great, who died in 337. Soon after, it became a Christian Church dedicated to the Archangels. After the Ottoman invasion in 1590, Thessaloniki’s church cathedral became a mosque until they were ousted in 1912. This Rotunda is a recognizable copy of the Pantheon in Rome, although smaller. Its height nearly reaches 30 meters to the top of the dome, and the circle measures 24.5 meters in diameter. The dome, which initially had an oculus, is resting on walls that are 6.3 meters thick and built similarly to its example in Rome. The construction is made of bricks that were covered with marble slabs on the outside. However, the interior walls were decorated with early Byzantine mosaics in the 4th-6th century.

Although we have no hard proof that all these Pantheons and Mausoleums arose in the wake of Alexander’s now-lost tomb in Alexandria, the very idea remains very tempting. It is doubtful that Alexander conceived his tomb at any time, neither when he was in Alexandria nor in Babylon. The city of Alexandria was still under construction when the king died, which was why his body was temporarily placed in a tomb in Memphis. Ptolemy I or his son Philadelphus brought Alexander’s golden sarcophagus to his burial site in Alexandria, approximately between 298 and 274 BC. 

Amazingly, no description at all has survived about its exact location. The same mystery surrounds the king’s second grand burial site after Ptolemy IV Philopator had completed the construction of the imposing new Royal Mausoleum. Alexander’s body was moved sometime during his reign, between 221 and 204 BC, and was placed amidst the remains of other members of the Ptolemy dynasty. This necropolis with the Alexander Mausoleum was located somewhere in the middle of the city. Ancient testimonies remain very vague on the subject, and since most of the initial Alexandria lies four or five meters under the modern metropolis, it will not reappear soon.

In any case, the Mausoleum of Alexander existed from the third century BC till after the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who died in 138 AD. Crowds of people paid tribute to Alexander over the centuries and yet his tomb could not be located!

[Picture 1 from Tiqets.com - Picture 2 from Wikimedia - Picture 3 from Wikipedia - Picture 4 is mine - Picture 5 from Tiqets.com]

Wreaths and crowns of leaves or gold

Exploring the rooms of an archaeological museum, one inevitably comes across a concentration of gold and silver jewelry. Among them, the gold crowns with their quivering leaves call for our attention. 

The gold wreaths and crowns originated in ancient times when leaves and flowers were commonly used to mark festive occasions like processions or special dinners. Golden crowns were the privilege reserved for honors on behalf of the community or as funerary reverence. 

Wreaths of leaves were recognized as prizes for those victorious at competition games, marking a moment of triumph for the athlete. The most famous event was the Olympic Games, where the winner received a crown of olive leaves. Variants are laurel, Apollo’s sacred tree, at Delphi, dried celery at the Isthmian games, and green celery at the Nemean games. 

However, they were also appropriate on many other occasions. Those attending a Symposium would wear wreaths made of roses, violets, or myrtle leaves. Such wreaths appear clearly in Oliver Stone's movie Alexander in the wedding scene of King Philip.

They were also a sign of exceptional merit and military conduct and were worn by orators and priests as they performed their sacrifices. The Maenads and other followers of Dionysus wore wreaths of ivy or vine leaves, and so did the Chorus in ancient Greek theater. 

The ritual of crowning even extended to altars, statues, and temples. Wreaths were also part of funerary practices as the deceased would be crowned; the urns containing their ashes had a wreath, or the wreath was placed inside the tomb. 

Many such examples made in gold have reached us and found their way to the museums. For instance, the crown of oak leaves and acorns discovered in the tomb of King Philip in Aegae and the silver funerary urn from an unspecified Macedonian tomb are at the Museum of Vergina. 

However, most of the finds are on display at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki (see: Exploring the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki). The wreaths come, for instance, from Cassandreia, Apollonia, Sedes, Aenea, and the greater area around Thessaloniki and ancient Aegae. These precious grave goods may be the legacy of Alexander’s conquests and the wealth Macedonia amassed in his wake. 

It is a pure pleasure to wander through the museum’s rich collections to find, for instance, two myrtle wreaths, one splendidly executed with colored flowers, and another funerary one with bronze gilt leaves and clay gilt fruit (Aenea) from 350-325 BC. Two olive crowns, one from Tomb A and another very elaborated one with the knot of Heracles from Cassandreia (3rd century BC). The gold ivy wreath was found in Apollonia and dated 350-325 BC. The gold oak crown, very typical for the Macedonian court, was also unearthed in Cassandreia and carried the fascinating knot of Heracles as well. 

Although Athens holds far fewer examples, they may be kept in their reserves. The National Archaeological Museum exhibits a myrtle wreath with berries from the 4th century BC. The lesser-known Benaki Museum displays an oak leaves crown from the late 2nd/early 1st century BC found in Alexandria and another crown with gold ivy and flowers from Macedonia, 1st century BC. 

Eventually, wreaths appeared on funerary monuments or were painted on their walls. In time, a wreath might be carved on the tomb to mark the site. 

It is noteworthy that wreaths were sacred objects. It was a sacrilege to wear somebody else’s crown without authorization. It was also forbidden to remove a wreath or dispose of it if you were not supposed to touch it. 

Crowns were not a privilege of Greece. Earlier Thracian gold wreaths were found in Bulgaria and are now at the Museum of Sofia. 

A most striking and uncommon crown surfaced at Tillya-Tepe in northern Afghanistan (see: Bactrian Gold, the Hidden Treasures from the Museum of Kabul). The burial site belongs to some steppe people. It has been dated to the first century AD revealing a true mixture of art from the steppes (possibly Scythian art), Greek, Indian, and Chinese art. The princess’ crown is a travel crown with gold spangles and flowers. It can be taken apart as it consists of five separate pieces mounted around a tiny stem holding flattened branches that fit into the band of the crown itself. The spangles are gently shaking as people walk by, so imagine this crown out in the open steppe where the wind can play freely with every tiny detail! A true gem! 

How many more such treasures remain hidden, waiting for us to discover them?

[Picture from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander. The crown from Tillya Tepe is from the Australian]

A rare Illyrian helmet

Even in antiquity, the world was much larger than we like to believe today. One such often ignored corner is the southern Adriatic, both on the Italian peninsula and on the eastern mainland of the Balkans. Nowadays, the latter is occupied from north to south by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. In antiquity, there were mainly the Illyrians. 

Archaeologists have unearthed a rare bronze Illyrian helmet to prove the inter-relations and connections between the countries mentioned above and Greece. It was discovered in a rock-cut tomb on the peninsula of Pelješac, roughly 70 kilometers north of Dubrovnik.  

Made for a Greek warrior, the tomb in Croatia dates from the 4th century BC. 

The Etruscans and the Scythians may have commonly used this open-faced helmet before finding their way to Illyria. Although this type of helmet disappeared from Greece in the early 5th century BC, it survived in Illyria till the end of the 4th century BC. 

Despite reports from archaeologists that this type of helmet is rare, I have seen several examples in Greek museums. For instance, this early Illyrian helmet from the 8th-7th century BC at the Museum of Olympia, 

and yet another Illyrian helmet with a funerary gold band at the Archaeological Museum in Thessaloniki 

I suppose the helmet is rare because it is found in Croatia? However, archaeologists claim that only forty such helmets exist in all of Europe. Maybe I was just lucky to find a few of those rare examples? 

Anyway, the cave also contained the grave of a woman who wore a bronze bracelet. The site yielded thirty vases, mainly of Greek origin, although researchers believe they come from Attic and Italian workshops. They probably are the most expensive vessels of the time. 

Scholars had dated these tombs to some time before the late 4th/early 3rd century, i.e., before the foundation of nearby Korčula, the first colony. 

All in all, these findings will lead to a new understanding of the southern Adriatic's role in history.

[Top picture, Credit: Dubrovnik Museums] 

About the Paeonians

So very little is known about the Paeonians, who occupied the lands north of ancient Macedonia. 

The borders of Paeonia were not clearly defined. As an Illyrian tribe, they settled along the upper valley of the Vadar River, the Axios, as it entered Macedonia. The country was roughly squeezed between the Dardanians and the Macedonians (see: The King is dead, long live the King!), matching more or less the state of modern Northern Macedonia. The Paeonians comprised Illyrian tribes such as the Agrianes and the lesser-known Derrones, Doberes, Laiaians, Siriopaeones, and Paeoplai. 

In 358 BC, one year into his kingship, Philip defeated the Paeonians and secured his northern border. By doing so, he created a sort of buffer zone between Macedonia and the tribes of the Danube further north. Paeonia controlled the trade route up the Axios River that emptied into the Gulf of Thessaloniki at Pella, the capital of Macedonia. 

It was probably at this time that Parmenion, one of the Paeonian chieftains, was promoted to the rank of general at Philip's side. We often forget this interesting background for a man who served both Philip and Alexander for so many years. 

Alexander levied one ilai of about 150 Paeonian cavalry when he started his eastern campaign. A reinforcement of 500 Paeonians joined him in Egypt in 332 BC, and another 600 cavalry in Susa in 331 BC. 

If we consult Arrian, we learn that Alexander often used the Paeonians as part of the "sacrificial pawn." This was an elite unit that he placed in front of his right flank to keep the Persians busy and to create enough confusion whereby he would find a wedge in the enemy's line.

The first such attack is described at the Granicus when advanced Scouts, the Paeonians, one infantry company, and a leading cavalry squadron were sent forward. At the same time, Alexander moved in an oblique line to pull the Persians on the opposite riverbank further to his right to create a gap in their lines. A similar move was made at Issus when he threw forward his advanced Scouts together with the Paeonians and the archers to force an opening in the Persian line. 

At the Battle of Gaugamela, the situation was different. As Alexander led his cavalry ever further to the right, Darius sent the Scythian chariots forward to cut off Alexander's progress. At this point, the Paeonian contingent and the mercenaries were sent to neutralize their progress, in which they were successful. 

After that, the Paeonians are no longer mentioned, and it is generally admitted that they settled in one of Alexander's newly built cities. 

What brought me to talk about the Paeonians is the recent excavations at the city of Stobi, which was founded in the 6^th century BC. It stood out as a trade center and a military and religious center. It was also the seat of the Paeonian Kings and the capital of the later Roman province Salutaris. 

Today, the city can be found close to the village of Gradsko, situated about 80 kilometers from Skopje in North Macedonia. The archaeological site covers some 27 hectares, spread over three terraces. Besides the ever-present theater, a significant number of buildings have been exposed. 

The major reference point at Stobi is, as always, the theater that dates from the 2^nd-3^rd century AD and could seat as many as 17,000 spectators. 

So far, several roads have been mapped out and named. The Via Axia, for instance, is one of the main streets running east-west and would match the Roman Decumanus. The Via Theodosia was parallel to the Via Axia, unearthed between the House of Peristerius and the Palace of Theodosius. Another important road is known as Via Principalis Inferior, running from the main city fountain, past edifices like the Central Basilica, the House of Partenis, the Palace of Theodosius, and the House of Psalms. The fountain was on a small square where the Via Axia and the Via Principalis Inferior met.

The Northern Basilica, Civil Basilica, Central Basilica, and Episcopal Basilica from the 5^th century AD clearly stand out because of their striking mosaics and tall columns. The private houses are interesting for their layout, rich mosaic floors, and imposing colonnades. The Palace of Theodosius is where Emperor Theodosius lived in 388 AD. It is of interest because of its remarkable floors in the opus sectile. In the pool area, a splendid bronze satyr was discovered, together with bronze sculptures of Apollo, Aphrodite, and Lar, and a marble head of Serapis. Some of these precious artifacts date from the 2nd century BC, indicating Stobi's Hellenistic connections or roots. These pieces can be admired at the National Museum of Belgrade.

[Picture from Discovering Macedonia]

So far, the information about the excavations and the history of Stobi could not be more sketchy. Even the available maps provide only basic outlines. It will be interesting to see how the research and the mapping will progress in the years to come.

There is no reference to Alexander or his father, but it is common that the Romans erased the traces of the previous occupations. Like their Balkan neighbors, the Paeonians have no written history, and all information comes from their conquerors and/or enemies, which is not always reliable.

[The maps are provided by the St Louis Community Center]