About Greek/Roman columns and capitals

Well, this is not so much about columns which are the apparent eye-catcher generally drawing our attention toward the remains of a temple, an agora, or a stoa. Capitals are more challenging to pinpoint as they often toppled down after warfare, earthquakes, or other destruction. Although the casual visitor will inevitably notice the columns, he seldom pays attention to the capitals. These, however, tell a story of their own.

We are most familiar with the Doric and Ionic columns and capitals. The Doric order is the oldest one and is found in archaic architecture. It was, in fact, a logical evolution when stone replaced the original wooden beams in the construction of sanctuaries. The stones were cut into drums that could be handled readily and piled one atop the other to the desired height.

We have many temples built in the Doric style, and the highest concentration may be found in places such as Agrigento, Segesta, and Selinunte in Sicily.

Remains of this stone-cutting process are clearly visible at the ancient quarry of Cava di Cusa in Sicily. Since the site was abruptly abandoned, the quarried and half-quarried drums have been left unfinished. Seeing them from so close up and realizing how big such a drum truly was was pretty amazing.

The slim Ionic columns and capitals are generally tied to the Hellenistic period. They are higher and carry their typical elegant curly capital. Once again, it pays off to carefully look at a capital lying on the ground, as is the case in Didyma, Turkey, for instance. Spotting such capital on top of a 20-meter-high column is one thing, but quite another experience to match it to your stature.

Once the drums were stacked, the columns were usually fluted, but not always. In some cases, we find monolithic columns made of more noble materials like marble. They always seem to make a statement.

The Romans favored the Corinthian order, whose capitals were more elaborate. They came in endless variations of acanthus leaves, sometimes mingled with flowers to turn into delicate high-reliefs, almost like lace. It is remarkable to learn that in Gerasa (modern Jerash), Jordan, the Romans removed all the Ionic capitals from the columns on the Cardo and replaced them with Corinthian ones.

By the second century AD, we start seeing the heads of gods and goddesses emerging from among the foliage of the Corinthian acanthus. The first such elaborate examples that struck me were those from the Palazzo delle Colonne in Ptolemais, Libya, with the heads of Jupiter and Mars. There must be many more such examples, of course.

The Greeks and Romans' primary architectural orders are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals. Other countries and other civilizations had their own versions. The Egyptians loved their papyrus capitals, and the Persians the double bull or lion heads.

Yet, I was very much surprised to see the Pergamene capital as I was strolling through the widespread ruins of Leptis Magna in Libya. Why had I not seen any in Pergamon, Turkey? Did I miss them altogether? I returned to my pictures of Pergamon but found mainly Ionic capitals, besides some Doric and Corinthian. Even the famous Altar of Zeus displayed only Ionic columns. However, the temple of Athena has used Pergamene capitals. 

Otherwise, even after searching the internet, I found only rare examples of this capital inspired by the Egyptian palm columns. Yet, they were all over Leptis Magna, and I feel privileged to have seen them in such large numbers with my own eyes!

In the end, looking at the top of the many columns that still fill our archaeological sites clearly pays off. We may be in for more surprises than expected. 

New technologies to map hidden ancient Gerasa

Archaeology is evolving fast forward, thanks to the constant flow of new technology. One of the latest techniques in that field is using laser pulses from an aircraft to create an exact 3D map. This is called LiDAR or Light Detection and Ranging.

This revolutionary procedure is particularly useful to quickly map large areas with a high degree of accuracy. At present, Jerash, the ancient city of Gerasa (see: Alexander, founder of Gerasa), has been scrutinized. Until now, all we had to go by were old archival data and historical aerial photographs going back as far as the First World War. 

Results of the mapping process, showing newly identified features and previously mapped structures. The results demonstrate that a substantial number of archaeological features can be identified. These are complex to interpret, but the outline of a probable road network (Inset), and urban subdivisions are visible, along with a large number of subrectangular features likely indicative of building foundations.
[Picture from Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]

Urban development, here as elsewhere, has considerably changed the picture. Modern Jerash is a booming town and unfortunately for the archaeologists, at least 50% is built on top of old Gerasa.

Thanks to this new technology, researchers and archaeologists can see all those hidden remains, down to the most subtle and most difficult discernable features. Maps are lovely tools to study the past and looking at the 3D LiDAR map reveals so many details hitherto unknown. Much has been destroyed, but much is still there to be discovered and to be preserved for the future.

A good example is, for instance, the water management in ancient Gerasa that become apparent on the 3D maps (see: Water management in antiquity). A complex and sophisticated series of aqueducts and irrigation channels transported the essential water from nearby rivers and springs. 

I am convinced that there are many other clues about the organization and administration of ancient Gerasa waiting to be revealed. It will be wonderful to follow up on what is being exposed in Jerash and how this technology will be applied to other vestiges from antiquity.

The full article about this LiDAR technology is available in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, co-written by David Stott, Søren Much Kristiansen, Achim Lichtenberger and Rubina Raja.

Bathing in beauty in ancient Gerasa

Excavations carried out between 2016 and 2018 by teams of German, French and Jordanian archaeologists have exposed a large number of statues from the Great Eastern Roman Baths in Gerasa (modern Jerash in Jordan). Apparently they toppled down after a severe earthquake.

[Picture from Albawaba.  Shutterstock/File Photo]

This monumental complex – apparently one of the largest and best preserved in the East – dates from the second half of the 2^nd century AD. Amazingly, some of the vaults of these baths still stand to a height of 12 meters. The construction was enlarged under the Severan Emperors, who added a connecting pillared hall with exedra on the north side. Scholars estimate that this hall is a reminder of the “imperial halls” that were common in Asia Minor at the time.

Several of the 27 statues are said to be intact and represent Zeus and Aphrodite, as well as the muses from Graeco-Roman mythology sitting on a throne. Based on the picture included in the article in Albawaba, and if it does indeed belong to the baths, the artwork is of a very high level.

The statue of Aphrodite in the company of Eros, is made of Pentelic marble quarried around Athens and according to the inscription on the plinth, it was donated by a priest named Demetrius around March 153/154 AD.

Exquisite frescoes unearthed in Jordan

A Hellenistic tomb consisting of two funerary chambers has been recently found in Dion, one of the cities belonging to the Decapolis in the first century AD (see: Alexander, founder of Gerasa).  It was discovered by chance next to the recently unearthed theater.

Finding a tomb may be just one of many but finding a tomb with near intact wall paintings is an exception. All in all, the murals depict 260 figures representing humans, gods, and animals.

Right at the entrance, both walls and the ceiling depict nautical scenes in which nymphs and cupids are riding sea animals. The central medallion, in turn, is decorated with the signs of the zodiac and the planets set around a quadriga.

Starting with the chamber on the left, one discovers some gods lying on their couches while sampling the goodies that are brought in by humans who are depicted to be smaller than themselves. The next wall is filled with peasants working in the fields with their oxen, but also gathering fruit and taking care of the grapevines. The last panel shows lumbermen cutting down a variety of tries with the help of the gods – a rare subject in Graeco-Roman art.

The walls of the chamber on the right depict the construction of a rampart in which laborers bring in the material loaded on the backs of their camels and donkeys under the supervision of architects or foremen. Stone cutters or masons are climbing the walls, and some are involved in accidents. The last fresco probably represents a priest who is sacrificing to the guardian gods of the city.

[Picture wikipedia]

At present, scholars are still deciphering some sixty bits of text written in Aramaic, the local language, using the Greek alphabet. This by itself is something extremely rare in the ancient Near East. Another oddity is that the inscriptions are presented in a way similar to modern comic books (in bubbles).

The rich iconography seems to indicate the founding of Capitolias, another name for Dion. This would fit the consultation of the gods choosing the site during a banquet, the clearing of the land (as opposed to the peasants), the construction of the wall, and finally the offerings to thank the gods after the building of the city.

A first conclusion leads to believe that this subterranean tomb of 52 m2 was built for the founder of Dion who is represented presiding over the sacrifice as depicted on the last wall in the right chamber. Once all the texts will be deciphered, we may find the name of this important personage although it may also be what is engraved on the lintel of the entrance door.

[Top picture: Two stone-cutters at work [Credit: Julien ALIQUOT/ HiSoMA 2018]

More illegal mosaics from Apamea

When I wrote my previous blog, The unique mosaic from Apamea, I was not aware that there was more of the kind to follow. There is a much larger mosaic estimated to cover at least 19 m2 that is also high on INTERPOL’s list of illegal digs at Apamea in Syria.

Besides the panel discussed previously showing the foundation of Apamea by Seleucos I with his son Antiochus I, there are three more panels coming from the same source. Because of their size and magnificence, this entire mosaic is assumed to belong to a large room from a wealthy Roman residence. The top one depicts the foundation of Pella (as Apamea was called previously) by the legendary Archippos. The bottom panels illustrate the construction of a fortification wall around the city that holds monumental public buildings.

Based on the clandestine photographs of this floor, it seems that the very lower part and half of the central zone are missing. What remains is, however, of the highest quality and has been compared to the paintings from the tomb of Agios Athanasios (see: The Macedonian Tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki) – not without ground.

The top mosaic portraying the religious foundation of Pella shows five Macedonian cavalrymen with their horses, shields, and spears on the right-hand side and five figures making cult offerings in the left corner. Three of these men have been identified as their names are inscribed in Greek. We read Archippos as the legendary founder of the city sacrificing a bull, flanked by Antipater and his son Cassander – all richly dressed in their best tunic and cloak and wearing a diadem.

The central part of the mosaic depicts the key moment of the foundation of Apamea, where Seleucos holds the ktistes, an architectural measuring instrument symbolizing him as being the founder. Around a large table filled with silver and gold coins, we find once again Archippos and Antiochus I, together with Antipater and Cassander, and most importantly, Seleucos’ wife Apame, who contributed lavishly to the construction of the city. All these figures are dressed in the same sumptuous outfits as mentioned above.

I fail, however, to understand the presence of old Antipater in the company of his not-so-beloved son Cassander. We will remember that Antipater named Polyperchon as his successor and not Cassander, so why would he have dragged his son along to Pella/Apamea? And for what reason would they both be present in Pella/Apamea in the first place? The article published in Popular Archaeology seems to place the entire scene around 321-319 BC when Antipater was regent and Cassander was the commander of the Macedonian cavalry in Pella/Apamea. Still, I wonder what their contribution was to the foundation of Apamea. The Roman vision of history in the 4^th century AD, some seven centuries after the facts, appears to be shrouded in mystery.

The background of this mosaic is, however, as exciting as the figures in the foreground, to say the least. We see huge defense walls encircling the city. Inside those walls, there is a large roofed temple with a high pediment supported by five columns. This temple is flanked by several other smaller and roofed buildings. Also recognizable is the large hippodrome or Roman circus, not unlike the one that has been unearthed in nearby Gerasa (which was founded about the same time) with a central spina delimited by little turrets. The figures on the left bottom part of that section are less obvious. They seem to be men working on the fortification wall, and a large ox is pulling something heavy.

The very bottom of the mosaic depicts a more idyllic suburban scene with, on the right-hand side, a lovely Roman Bath. Two distinct entrances can be seen, one probably leading to the cloakroom used by two women with small children and the other opening up above a ramp from which children are sliding down into the pool below. Very important, however, is the large noria (waterwheel) depicted on the left of this section. Until now, it was generally accepted that the oldest norias dated from the 5^th century AD, but this picture confirms that they were used already one full century earlier! Norias are still standing along the Orontes River in Hama (see: Hama and its norias), where in the 5^th century, some one hundred of them were still functioning. This makes you wonder how many of them were aligned along that same river here in Apamea!

All in all, these mosaic scenes are very revealing while, at the same time, they rise many new questions. It is not surprising to find them among the most valuable objects wanted by INTERPOL. It would be great if these masterpieces could be recovered someday, enabling professionals to examine them more closely.

[Pictures of the mosaics from Popular Archaeology]

Another legacy of Alexander in Gadara

Archaeological excavations in Gadara (modern Umm Qais) have exposed a “first of its kind” Hellenistic temple in the region. As discussed in an earlier blog (see: Pella and Gadara, two more settlements for Alexander’s veterans), Gadara emerged in the wake of Alexander the Great, together with Pella and Gerasa, and shares most of their history. Gadara was coveted by both the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, who captured and recaptured it time and again, confirming the role it played on the trade routes with the east.

Pottery shards will have to narrow down the construction date of the temple, but so far, it has been revealed that it was built in the Ionic order. The ground plan revealed the pronaos, a podium, and a naos, the holiest part. As so often, the building has been reused later on by the Romans, Byzantines, and Muslims.

In the center of Gadara, a network of water tunnels has also been discovered, consisting of several Hellenistic wells and Roman tunnels that led to one of the central Baths.

It is always a great pleasure to hear that new buildings and artifacts will be added to the already existing rich remains of this once so proud city.

[Picture of the excavations is from the Jordan Times]

Pella and Gadara, two more settlements for Alexander’s veterans

When Alexander returned from Egypt in 331 BC, he marched along the coast of the eastern Mediterranean. How close to the coast may be subject to debate, but the fact remains that he had to send foraging parties into the hinterland. Alexander must have depleted much of the local provisions when he marched his troops through the region the year before, as did the fleet that supported him and his troops on their way to Egypt, especially when crossing the Sinai. This being said, it is very plausible that his foraging parties had to move further inland when he returned. To that purpose, they must have exploited the lands east of the Dead Sea, Jordan River, and the Sea of Galilee, and that is exactly where we find cities like Gerasa, Pella, and Gadara, which are said to be founded by Alexander.

The founding of Gerasa has been treated in an earlier blog (see:  Alexander founder of Gerasa). Some 45 kilometers north of that city lies the town of Pella (previously Pihilum) known to be named in honor of the city where Alexander was born. Pella flourished in Hellenistic times as it became a regional power in the maze of trade routes running through the city. It has been established that Pella was largely populated in Hellenistic times as it was a hub for merchants crossing the region (see: Apamea, heritage of Alexander). Under the rule of Seleucos, the city was renamed Apamea after his wife Apame.

After the death of Alexander, Gerasa and the neighboring territories were annexed by the Ptolemies in 301 BC. At some time during the third and second centuries BC, the Seleucids took hold of the area and undertook a thorough Hellenization till by 64-63 BC, it became a Roman province. The Romans, to properly govern Judea and Syria, created a Decapolis (see: Alexander, founder of Gerasa), a group of ten cities that shared the same language, commercial relations, and political status. Each city enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy with its own Semitic, Nabataean, Aramean, and Jewish culture. The members were according to Pliny:  Damascus (in Syria), Philadelphia (modern Amman in Jordan), Gerasa (now Jerash in Jordan), Scythopolis (now Beisan in the Jordan Valley, North Israel), Gadara (modern Umm Qays in Jordan) and once the capital of this Decapolis, Hippos (on the banks of Lake Tiberias in Israel), Dion (probably near Irbid in Jordan, but not yet discovered), Pella (in the Jordan Valley, northwest of Amman in Jordan), Canatha (now Qanawat in Syria) and Raphana (probably north of Umm Qays in Jordan, but not yet discovered either). As part of the Decapolis, these cities shared the common political, cultural, and commercial interests of the other members and enjoyed their Golden Age that lasted for about 150 years.

The Romans left their usual buildings, like theaters and temples, along familiar colonnaded streets in Apamea. It is hard to imagine in today’s desert-like landscape that these cities were blessed with fertile soil and plenty of water, making them favorite stops on the busy trade routes between Europe and Asia. Let us not forget that besides goods and agricultural skills, Greek culture and language widely spread.

Another 30 kilometers onward, we find the town of Gadara, today’s Umm Qays, near the northern border of Jordan with Israel and Syria in the hills above the Jordan Valley. Since Gadara emerged in the wake of Alexander the Great, as well as Pella and Gerasa, it shares most of its history. It became part of the kingdom of the Seleucids, and we know from Polybius that Antiochus III ruled here in 218 BC and that Gadara was coveted by both the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, who captured and recaptured it time and again, confirming the role it played on the trade routes with the east. The Seleucid kings renamed the city Antiochia or Antiochia Semiramis and even another Seleucia, as they turned the city into a center of Greek culture.

Gadara boomed under the Romans after Pompey conquered it in 63 BC. At that time, the reputation of the local poet Meleagros (131-61 BC) had already spread far and wide. He was a much-admired Hellenistic author who wrote an anthology of other poets – a true statement of the city’s high cultural level. Gadara certainly deserved its surname of “Athens of the East” when in the 2^nd and 3^rd centuries AD it became a center for philosophy, literature, and theater.

The ruins of Gadara are far less impressive than those of Gerasa, mainly since most of the city still lies underneath the old Ottoman village from the 18^th-19^th century that has been vacated in recent decades. The spooky streets and buildings are hiding the Roman living quarters. This settlement leans closely to the crumbling walls and has inherited its medieval name of Umm Qays. 

The very top of the hill has been carefully excavated and exposes many of the official buildings. It is always a delight to enter an ancient city over the Cardo, which here is paved with large blocks of black basalt. The Roman Theater on the right almost immediately calls for attention. It is entirely built of black basalt as well and offers seating for 3,000 people. This is generally called the West Theater, as there are remains of another theater on the north side of town, which has largely been dismantled by the locals and recycled for their own contemporary constructions, leaving an overgrown field. Unlike the usual eastern-oriented theaters, this theater is looking to the west so that the theater-goers would be sheltered from the strong eastern wind! The remains date generally from the first and second centuries AD and are overall in good condition. From the top tiers, one has a most wonderful view over this biblical land on the eastern bank of the Jordan River, where the Golan Heights and the Sea of Galilee shimmer on the horizon.

Back on the Cardo, one notices several vaulted spaces underneath the skene where once shops were set up. Even in antiquity, theater-goers could be tempted by food and drinks or other entertainment commodities!

Then the Cardo reaches the Decumanus, which has been well cleared and runs on for at least two kilometers to the west. Its black basalt pavement stands in sharp contrast with the white Corinthian limestone columns that separate the road from the sidewalk lined with shops of all kinds. The deep ruts in the pavement testify to the heavy traffic of carts with goods that were transported along the edge of this high plateau to nearby cities like Pella. In its heyday, this road ran all the way to the Mediterranean coast. Halfway there is an unknown sanctuary and a Nymphaeum next to still overgrown public baths from the 4^th century.

Turning back, one encounters another large and very impressive Nymphaeum set in the same black-and-white stone combination as found on the Decumanus. To the right is an area called the Terrace Church, dating from the 6^th century. This is a strange mixture of all kinds of Roman remains from the 2^nd century, enhanced with columns from Byzantine and early Islamic times. It is not easy to figure out the pattern and discover a central square framing an octagonal space. Each corner of this octagon is marked by a black basalt column, and it is believed to have been an unusual inner sanctum. On the west side, there is a large entrance hall, and on the north side, another open space that looks like an atrium. This may have been a pilgrimage site for some important martyr, although no hard proof has been found so far. Like so many buildings in Gadara, this church was destroyed by the severe earthquake of 747 AD, after which the city was abandoned.

The Decumanus loses itself further east past well-preserved city walls embracing the skeleton remains of the Ottoman houses and their crumbling walls. There must be a hippodrome and a stadium out there somewhere, as well as an aqueduct, but apparently, not much has been exposed.

It is nearly impossible to look at Gadara or Gerasa beyond the Roman influence, for these cities originally did not have any Greek roots. Since they were founded by Alexander, they should be seen as a pure Macedonian concept. It is here that the first seeds of later Hellenism were planted, and this makes me wonder how much of the Macedonian influence went into the Alexandrias founded later on during Alexander’s campaigns.

The glorious days of Palmyra

My first view of Palmyra was at nightfall when the entire city was bathed in floodlights. My eyes could not take in this fascinating scenery; it was a mere flash, a snapshot of columns and arches, of waving and fluted lines, of temples and streets whose warm tones strongly contrasted with the black velvet night sky. The mirage disappeared in the blink of an eye, but tomorrow looked most promising!

This city, which the Arabs called Tadmor, is not mentioned in Alexander’s history and was strangely enough ignored by the succeeding Seleucids who ruled over Greater Syria from 305 BC till it was annexed by Rome in 63 BC. Even at that time, it already had a long history going back to the second millennium BC as mentioned in the clay tablets found at Mari as well as in the Bible as part of Solomon’s realm. The oasis of Palmyra was generally an independent city, ideally located at the heart of the Syrian Desert, an important crossroad of several trade routes on the Silk Road. In other words, a strategic place that was most envied by the Roman Emperors.

For the next one hundred years, business boomed thanks to Palmyra’s intensive trading with Persia, India, and China and even with the Parthians who for many years were the enemies of Rome. The well-traveled Emperor Hadrian inevitably visited Palmyra in 129 AD and he was so much taken by this city that he renamed it Palmyra Hadriana and declared it independent. Unfortunately, the good days did not last and in 212 it became a Roman colony. From then onward it played a mere military role and its trading regressed, especially when the Sassanids occupied the lands between Tigris and Euphrates in the third century AD.

However, in 256/257 Palmyra’s King Odenathus (Septimus Edeinat) was held in high esteem by the Roman Emperor Valerian who appointed him Consul and Governor of the province Syria-Phoenicia that belonged to Palmyra since 194 AD. A few years later, Valerian was killed by the Sassanids (see: Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia) and apparently, Odenathus felt morally obligated to revenge the emperor’s death. He pursued the Sassanids to their capital Ctesiphon, situated on the Tigris River, on the opposite bank of Seleucia, but failed to take the city.

At this period of time, Palmyra had reached its glory, much to the chagrin of Rome, and Odenathus was murdered under obscure circumstances. His wife, Queen Zenobia took over and ruled in the name of her minor son Vaballath. Zenobia was a tough lady who caused quite a stir in history. Classical as well as Arabic sources describe her as handsome and intelligent, with dark skin, pearly-white teeth, and sharp black eyes. She is said to be more beautiful than Cleopatra, yet very chaste. Zenobia could ride a horse like a man, and on hunting or drinking parties she stood her man. She also was very learned, fluent in Arabic, Greek, Aramean, and Egyptian, and had a good knowledge of Latin. She was a sophisticated hostess and entertained philosophers and poets, among whom the famous Cassius Longinus. This Longinus wrote especially for her one of his masterpieces in which he integrated now lost parts of love poems by Sappho of Lesbos, who composed them in the 6^th century BC.

Zenobia also was very ambitious and extended her territory to the west, occupying Bosra, and in 269-270 she even marched all the way to Egypt; on the way back she took the harbor of Antioch-on-the-Orontes. She even managed to annex a big part of Anatolia including Ancyra (Ankara) in her empire. As can be expected, the Romans were not grateful for her interference and in 272 Emperor Aurelian took Antioch-on-the-Orontes back, followed by Emesa (Homs) and finally also Palmyra. Zenobia tried to escape by fleeing across the Euphrates but she was captured and taken to Rome, together with her son, Vaballath.

Vaballath probably died on the way to Rome. In 274 Zenobia appears in golden chains during Aurelian’s triumphal march through Rome. Out of pity but also taken by her beauty and pride, he granted Zenobia her freedom and installed her in an elegant villa at Tibur (today’s Tivoli, Italy), where she lived under her Roman name of Iulia (or Julia) Aurelia Zenobia. She spent her days in wealth and became a prominent philosopher, hostess, and Roman matron. She married a Roman governor and senator whose name is not known, giving him several daughters who all married into prominent Roman families. Some sources mention that Zenobia committed suicide after Aurelian’s defeat, but that is not very credible. A great number of her descendants have been traced to far into the 4^th and 5^th centuries.

In the meantime, Palmyra had not been entirely forgotten. Emperor Diocletian enlarged the city to install his Roman legions in all comfort and built a city wall to protect them against a possible invasion by the Sassanids from Persia. Later the Byzantines constructed several churches, but after the conquest by the Arabs Palmyra played only a marginal role.

It is still early and bone-chilling when I arrive at the site of Palmyra on this November day in 2009. The blistering wind chases freely through the colonnades and ruins but strangely enough, the surrounding hills remain shrouded in a low foggy veil – an eerie scenery. For a moment I pause to get my bearings and it all seems too much to take in, so many columns, stones, arches, walls, streets, remains, etc. I am totally overwhelmed and have to kick myself to move on.

My visit starts at the eastern city gate, very appropriately called the Monumental Arch, consisting of three Roman arches of which the middle one is the largest and leads immediately to the unpaved main street. We owe this arch to Septimius Severus (193-211 AD) who ingeniously built it with a twist to cover up the 30-degrees-angle between the Decumanus on one side of the arch and the Temple of Nebo on the other side. Nebo or Nabo was the Mesopotamian god of oracles, later assimilated with Apollo – hence the importance of this Temple. The remains are still imposing with its columns along the temenos in reserved Doric style, while the columns of the Temple itself are enhanced with Corinthian capitals.

With wide open eyes, I set foot on the Great Colonnade Street or Decumanus with its wonderful 10-meter-high monolithic columns crowned with Corinthian capitals. Each column has an empty pedestal where rich or prominent gentiles could place their likeness against payment that is. Public Relations even in those days were an important tool!

Then I come across the Baths of Zenobia, a rather large bathing complex where the Frigidarium as well as the Tepidarium, and the Caldarium are clearly recognizable. At the entrance, there are four remarkable pink granite monolithic columns, which with their Corinthian capitals stand in pleasant contrast with the white-pinkish stones used for the construction of the Baths.

On the opposite side of the street, I find the remains of the theater which looks too small for a city like Palmyra. Appearances are deceptive for originally this theater from the 2^nd century AD must have counted at least 30 tiers of seats but only nine have survived. The stage with the entire skena however is still in excellent condition. The theater has obviously been restored to be used for local festivals. The high stone wall around the orchestra indicates that it was also used for wild animal fights, a favorite sport of the Romans.

At an angle lies the Agora, also from the 2^nd century, complete with its annexes. The market area is well preserved as are a number of the surrounding shops and buildings. It is always exciting to discover that besides the original columns, the 2,000 years-old walls of the building have survived, including their windows and doorframes.

Elegant typical Roman arches are still marking the crossroads along this Great Colonnade Street, and that’s how I reach the Tetrapylon, a group of four times four columns. Only one of the sixteen pink granite columns is original, imported all the way from Aswan in Egypt. The other columns are modern copies but clearly illustrate the key position of this Tetrapylon at the bend in the Great Colonnade Street. This 1200-meter-long street or Decumanus although very impressive, is however shorter than the main street at Apamea (see: Apamea, heritage of Alexander), which I found more impressive. It may seem strange that this street was never paved but the reason therefore is that the camels needed a comfortable passage through the city – an animal-friendly consideration! With its porticoes and sidewalks, this Decumanus was exceptionally wide and measured nothing less than 23 meters! This avenue alone would be worth the visit.

On the sidewalk, I discover a long row of connecting pipes belonging to an aqueduct. An awkward place, but not so when you realize that this aqueduct ran on top of the colonnade along the Decumanus. The image brings back memories of the grand aqueduct of Aspendos (see: Aspendos the unfaithful) in Turkey where I saw these elements for the first time.

And that is how I reach the columns carrying the inscriptions of Zenobia, a bilingual text in Greek and Palmyrean. On one of the columns, one can read that it was dedicated by the rulers of Tadmor to their king and master Odenathus. The other column was dedicated to Septimia Bath-Zabbai (in Greek, Zenobia), their religious and saintly queen.

From afar the Citadel with the Arabian fortress probably built in the 13^th century by the Mameluks controls the landscape. However, what we see here dates mainly from the early 17^th century when Emir Fakhr-ud-Ding-ibn-Ma’ani occupied what is now Syria and Lebanon, and constructed several strongholds as a defense against the Ottomans. It is a constant backdrop in between the columns and streets of Palmyra and a photogenic one for that matter.

Walking northwards, I stop at the Temple of Baal-Shamin, the god of rain and fertility. It was built around 150 AD and is very well preserved because the Byzantines converted it into a church. It is a cozy temple that somehow reminds me of the Temple of Nike high on the Acropolis in Athens, except that it has Corinthian columns and a window in the sidewall. The inside is very inviting with the antique naos in the back, now a semi-circular apse with slender columns. It is a lovely spot, in the shade of a young tree that grows within its sheltering walls.

Keeping the best for last is a visit to the magnificent Temple of Bel that I treated in a separate blog (see: The Temple of Bel at Palmyra – In Memoriam).

A visit is not complete without a stop at one of the many tower tombs with their underground Hypogea. I have never seen anything like it, but there always is a first time for everything. After the Valley of the Queens in Egypt, this is the largest and most impressive collection of tombs. Surprisingly the entire landscape between the city walls of Palmyra and the surrounding hills is dotted with square towers or remains thereof, containing burial sites underground as well as above ground. They generally can be dated to between the 9^th century BC and the 2^nd century AD. I am told there are as many as 150 tombs, a significant number. Yet I have no idea what to expect.

The tower tomb of the Elahbel Family from 103 AD seems to be the most popular, and that is no wonder. I step inside a rather large rectangular room, deeper than it is wide and pretty high as well. The ceiling is still intact and is made of colorful starry caissons with at its center four portraits of the founders set against a bright blue background. What a beauty! The long side walls are meant to receive the remains of the dead in one of the four stories high slots. In this way, there was enough space for future generations, at least 300 family members. The vertical pillars separating the rows are fluted and crowned with a Corinthian capital. To the left of the entrance door is a staircase that leads to the upper floor, meaning that access to the superposed niches was easy enough.

Unfortunately, I am running out of time and I have to skip the less impressive remains on the north-western side of Palmyra with the Temple of Allat, the Temple with the Emblems, the Grave Temple, the Camp of Diocletian and especially the Oval Forum – although I was curious whether it was as big as the one at Gerasa (Jerash) in Jordan; probably not since I haven’t seen any pictures so far.

Yes, I am one of the lucky few to have seen this great and glorious city with my own eyes. The famous Temple of Bel (see: The Temple of Bel at Palmyra – In Memoriam) survived wars and conflicts for nearly two thousand years to shine in all its glory. This glory is gone now in 2015 as this great sanctuary and many other precious buildings have been blasted to dust. A part of the world’s history has been annihilated and obliterated. Our ancestors deserved a better fate.

My story and my pictures are a praise to Palmyra’s rich memory and to all those brave forefathers and fellow citizens who have lived there and led the city to its greatness.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Palmyra]
[The picture of Odenathus comes from Wikipedia. The concept of Zenobia from Zenobia, empress of the East]