The importance of Perinthus

In antiquity, Perinthus was of strategic importance as it controlled Athens’ grain route from the Black Sea through the Bosporus. Each spring Athenian ships loaded with wheat from the Danube and Maritza basins sailed down via Byzantium, the Hellespont, and further across the Aegean to Athens. 

Perinthus, near the modern city of Tekirdağ, had two harbors in the East and the West side of the peninsula both used for commercial and military purposes. So far, the remains of a shipwreck have been located at a depth of 60 meters, and the finding is under investigation. More of the city’s buildings are being exposed, including an Acropolis with large temples and a theater. Besides the many small artifacts such as bits of jewelry and statuettes, there also is a necropolis.

[Picture from Sozcu.com.tr]

In late 352 BC, King Philip of Macedonia was asked to assist a coalition of Central Thracia, consisting of Byzantium, and Perinthus in besieging the nearby fortress town of Heraion Teichos that threatened Perinthus (see: Philip is bouncing back). He marched his army east, took the town, and returned it to Perinthus, presumably its original owner. 

Philip’s presence in the area was a threat to the Athenians but also to the Persians aiming to control Perinthus. In 340 BC, the Persians ordered Pixodarus of Caria, their ally in Halicarnassus, to help Perinthus revolt against Philip. The operation was not successful. 

Pixodarus then changed his mind as Persia was in turmoil after the murder of King Artaxerxes III. He thought it wise to seek Philip’s support instead. He offered his daughter, Ada, in marriage to Philip’s retarded son Arrhidaeus. The pact was accepted. 

However, Alexander felt left out and decided to act on his own, offering himself as a marital candidate. When Philip got vent of this maneuver behind his back, the agreement with Pixodarus was called off. Philip seriously reprimanded his son by exiling several of his closest friends from Pella (see: Pella, the birthplace of Alexander). 

By 188 BC, Perinthus fell under the rule of Pergamon until the Romans took over in 129 BC. By the end of the 2^nd century AD, they used the port as a main hub to ship their troops between the Euphrates and the Danube fronts. On the other hand, Perinthus had an important connection with the Via Militaris that ran west to Philippopolis, Serdica, and Viminacium. From here, the Via Egnatia led to Thessaloniki, Dyrrhachion, and Brundisium. 

Based on inscriptions from the late 2^nd century AD, it has been established that the provincial governors of Thracia had a residence in Perinthus. 

[Map from Stilus.nl]

In 286 AD, Emperor Diocletian renamed the city Heracleia to become a state capital. He may well have built a palace here as the outline of the ruins indicates a similarity with his palace in Nicomedia.

Under Constantine in 330 AD, Heracleia was supplanted by Byzantium which was renamed Constantinople. 

In the end, Perinthus lived a long and prosperous history thanks to its strategic location with ideal access to the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as inland Anatolia, and Egypt. Inevitably, it became a multicultural center populated by different peoples all speaking their own language. That sounds very close to today’s praise of Istanbul joining Europe and Asia. 

Cohabitation of metro and museum

The story is not new. Metro lines have been constructed in many capital cities for the past decennia. Excavating the layers covering ancient settlements inevitably led to new discoveries. 

This was the case in Istanbul, Athens and Thessaloniki, Rome and Naples, Sofia (ancient Serdica), Plovdiv (ancient Philippopolis), and many others. In all cases, the finds yielded remains of temples, agoras, private houses and workshops, mosaics, coins, pottery, jewelry, etc. However, each city contributed in its own way to enrich our archaeological inheritance. 

In Istanbul, the construction of the Marmara Undersea Metro Line revealed a large section of ancient ports along the Bosporus, including ships of varied sizes from the 5^th to the 11^th century. The largest concentration of 37 shipwrecks dates from the 6^th and 7^th centuries AD. 

[Vaulted Eridanos River at metro station, Athens]

Athens exposed parts of its old city walls and the still flowing Eridanos River that runs through the Kerameikos, the ancient necropolis. The metro line between Athens and Piraeus yielded a great number of surprises of its own (see: Exposing the Hellenistic past of Piraeus). 

Thessaloniki surprised us with its ancient main street, the Decumanus Maximus, and the Via Egnatia, besides several necropolises (see: Archaeological finds at the Metro of Thessaloniki and Thessaloniki continues writing history). 

In Naples, archaeologists were able to retrace the ancient coastline thanks to a variety of shipwrecks. They excavated an important thermal bath complex, remains of the commercial area around the Greek agora, several houses with their atrium, and the Decumanus Maximus (see: The harbor of Roman Naples uncovered).

Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, is no exception: Evidence of antiquity can be clearly seen at the Serdica Station, which exhibits a wealth of unearthed Thracian and Roman ruins and modern architecture.” (quoted from Wikipedia).

Plovdiv, ancient Philippopolis, is another of those capital cities turned upside down by recent archaeological excavations (see: Plans enough to dig out Philippopolis). 

Rome lately made headlines during metro works. Ancient Roman barracks from the 2^nd century AD were discovered some nine meters below today’s street level. The ruins count 39 rooms, and many still display mosaics and frescoes. Following suit with similar situations in Greece and Turkey, authorities plan to incorporate the barracks into a large metro/museum structure. The station is located between the Coliseum and the Forum Romanum, along Line C, which is still under construction.

[Metro Louvre-Rivoli, Paris]

Nowadays, all major cities need more and more to revert to traveling by metro. As the majority of those towns have been built over and on top of ancient settlements, it is inevitable to hit remains from eons past. The municipalities share the most important artifacts with their local museums, but it is an excellent idea to create mini museums or exhibition showcases at the places where the pieces were found!

Paris may have been the first to display copies of telling artifacts from the Louvre. It is a true pleasure to spend time at the telling metro stops in the cities mentioned above and more. 

Heraklea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria

There are a great number of towns going by the name Heraclea or Herakleia throughout Turkey and Greece. Wikipedia provides an enticing list of places. 

In previous blogs, I developed Herakleia Pontus, a kingdom in Bithynia (see: Time to reconnect with Princess Amastris), Herakleia by Latmos to be found on the banks of Lake Bafa in Western Turkey, Herakleia Lyncestis in Illyria (see: King Philip, one year later – Macedonia forged by Philip II), and Heracleion-Thonis (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt).

This time, I’m focusing on Heraclea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria. The additive Sintica refers to the Sintians, a Thracian tribe that lived in the Valley of the Struma, the Greek Strymon River that runs past Amphipolis. The Sintian occupation goes back to 1300-1200 BC. Although many sources claim that the city had been founded by Cassander around 300 BC, others state that it was Philip, Alexander’s father who conquered Sintica and added Heraclea to remind the Thracians and the Macedonians that his ancestor was Heracles. The city’s layout appears to be similar to that of Philippi or Philippopolis. 

Heraclea Sintica was a major hub on the North-South traffic and connected the Aegean coast to Macedonia, Thrace, and the Balkan hinterland. In its heyday, its population may have reached 40-50,000 inhabitants! 

The city existed at least until the 6^th century AD since it was mentioned in the Byzantine tax records of Emperor Justinian the Great. 

Although the city's name was known, it took some investigation to find its location. A Latin inscription left by Emperor Galerius revealed that in response to their plea to restore their lost civil rights in 308 AD, he addressed the local citizens as those of Heraclea Sintica. 

Serious and steady excavations in Heraclea Sintica are pretty recent and seem to have started in 2007. 

By 2016, an imposing Basilica was unearthed, measuring 22 x 16 meters with walls rising five meters tall, next to other sanctuaries and shops. An older Basilica from the 4th century BC was discovered a year earlier. A striking find happened in 2017 when a Roman gold necklace came to light. It has been dated to the 4^th century AD and may have been made by craftsmen in Rome. 

In 2018, a headless Roman statue from ca. 100 AD was found underneath the stairs of the Forum. The statue represents a magistrate and was apparently carefully buried four meters deep. More recently, a female head was discovered in the eastern corner of the Forum. This head carries traces of ocher paint, indicating that the woman was blond. In ancient times, blond hair symbolized sin. This beautiful marble seems to date to the same time as the headless man. It is too early to draw any conclusion about the reason for these careful burial rites, as the site has not been entirely investigated yet. Intriguingly, both discoveries were made underneath buildings of later periods. Archaeologists suppose that these respectful funerals could have had a ritual meaning in antiquity – and may have been meant as protection from calamities or barbarian attacks. 

More questions remain unsolved, like the bone needle whose end was wrapped in a thin gold sheet. It must have belonged to a woman of some importance who lived in Heraclea Sintica in the 2^nd century AD. 

Undoubtedly, many more buildings and artifacts are still hidden from view, awaiting to be uncovered.

The extent of Philippopolis

Latest archaeological works have revealed that in the 4th century BC and in early Hellenistic times, Philippopolis was much larger than assumed initially.

[Picture from Archaeology in Bulgaria]

Photo: TV grabs from the Bulgarian National Television

The oldest hills are Nebet Tepe, Dzhambaz Tepe, and Taksim Tepe, where traces of prehistoric times have been found. As the settlement grew, it spread out over the seven hills we know today, called “tepeta” – from “tepe”, the Turkish word for hill that was used by the Ottomans.

Philip’s Philippopolis occupied those initial three hills, and until the 1^st century AD, the Romans also used the appropriate name of Trimontium. After this date, the city expanded into the surrounding plains, where six luxury residential quarters were uncovered. During ongoing excavations, numerous public buildings, like a temple, were unearthed, as well as an inn with a tavern and a brothel.

The Roman Eastern Gate from the 2^nd century AD has also been exposed. It was, in fact, a marble triumphal arch meant to honor Emperor Hadrian, who – as so often - visited the city.

[Picture from Archaeology in Bulgaria]

Photo: TV grabs from the Bulgarian National Television

Entering Philippopolis through this Gate, one would walk through one of the town’s most beautiful streets, which were 13 meters wide, and still carry the deep ruts left by the heavy traffic of carts moving goods in and out of the city. As usual, the street is lined with a colonnade running along the edge of the sidewalks on either side.

At Nebet Tepe, the remains of Hellenistic and Roman fortresses have been found. The entrance gate known as Hisar Kapiya, built under Trajan and Marcus Aurelius is the best preserved.

As mentioned in earlier blogs (see: Philip’s Macedonia included also today’s Bulgaria and Plans enough to dig out Philippopolis), most of Philip’s proud city is still hidden underneath modern Plovdiv. Among the hidden treasures is a huge Stadium that was 180 meters long and could seat as many as 30,000 spectators. It appears that Septimius Severus organized contests at Philippopolis that were not unlike those held by the Greeks in their Olympic Games.

Into the Plains of the Danube River

After their fierce battle at Mount Haemus (modern Shipka Pass in Bulgaria at 1150 meters), i.e. the major thoroughfare from Philippopolis to Gabrovo and Veliko Tarnovo, the road was open for the Macedonians.

Alexander’s next goal was the Triballi who lived south of the Danube. On his way north, he crossed the Lyginus River (modern Yantra) near Veliko Tarnovo. It is here, according to Arrian, that the bulk of the Thracians sought refuge on an island in the river as soon as the Macedonians had passed through. When the young king heard the news, he reacted in a way that became so characteristic for him in the years to come: he retraced his steps to face the enemy head-on. He managed to dislodge the unsuspecting Thracians and ran them down. As a result, 3,000 of them were killed but many escaped through the dense woods.

At this point, Alexander was only three days' march away from the Danube. On his way through the broad fertile Danube plain, he captured several Triballi strongholds before reaching Odessos, modern Varna on the Black Sea. Today, these flats are covered with endless fields of sunflowers, and colorful patches among the gold of the harvested cornfields. One may wonder whether sunflowers were cultivated back in antiquity but it turns out that the plant is native to North America and thus arrived much later.

Odessos is one of the many colonies founded by Miletus around 585-550 BC which functioned according to the Greek administrative pattern (see: The many colonies of Miletus). It was an important trading hub exchanging goods with Asia Minor and the Greek islands as well as with the Thracians living inland. Odessos proudly resisted the siege of Philip in 339 BC but on this occasion was taken by Alexander. The town flourished later on when Lysimachos ruled over Thracia after Alexander’s death.

Today’s treasure of Varna is to be found in its Archaeological Museum with the precious artifacts recovered from the so-called Varna Necropolis. This burial site counted 294 graves from 4600-4200 BC and has yielded some of the world’s oldest gold which is exquisitely exhibited – a must-see!

This is just a parenthesis as Alexander marched on to dislodge the Triballi and the Thracian tribes who with their wives and children had taken refuge on Peuce Island at the mouth of the Danube.

Memorable clash at Mount Haemus

Once his succession to the throne was secured and he had taken care of his father’s funeral, all Alexander wanted was to start his Asian campaign. But having learned that the Triballi and the Thracians were on the warpath he had no other option than to change his plans.

In spring 335 BC, he marched to Mount Orbelus, crossed the Nestos River to reach Mount Haemus, apparently ten days after he had left from Philippi.

Mount Haemus is the modern Balkan Mountain Range which is a 700 km-long spine running east-west through Bulgaria. It is here that the Thracians awaited the Macedonians, holding the major thoroughfare from Philippopolis to the north. This pass is better known by its modern appellation, the Shipka Pass situated at an elevation of 1150 meters. Few people in Bulgaria are aware of Alexander’s daring confrontation but rather remember the pass for the more recent battle they fought with the help of the Russians against the Ottoman Empire in 1877-78. In the 20^th century, an ugly monument was erected on this spot to commemorate the liberation of Bulgaria. The Bulgarian-Orthodox Church with its gold-covered onion shaped steeples is a far nicer marker to remember the soldiers who died for their country. 

Alexander’s encounter with the determined Thracians was one of his masterminded confrontations. A large enemy force was awaiting him at the top of the narrows. The Thracians had hauled wagons up the pass with the intention to let them thunder down on the advancing Macedonians as soon as they were within reach. Alexander assessed the situation immediately and issued orders to the phalanx to open up their ranks to let the wagons run through. In places where there was not enough space for the soldiers to step aside, they were instructed to lie down on the ground and lock their shields above their head. As a result, the Thracian wagons hardly caused any damage as they bolted downhill. 

Imagine how that went down with the troops this early in Alexander’s generalship! It is notable that the army obeyed his orders to the letter, showing that they trusted their new king and commander – a matter of detail, but a very important one! In the end, 1,500 Thracians were killed; the women and children were sent to Macedonia to be sold as slaves.

This episode is so characteristic for Alexander and even more telling when you consider what happens a few years later when he is confronting the Persian King Darius at the Battlefield of Gaugamela. Facing the Scythian chariots with the one meter long blades extending on each side able to mow away the enemy, he gave his troops the exact same order to let the carts run through the ranks with optimal result. Just remember that the very idea was born only one year into his kingship here in these Balkan forests. 

What is the Peraia of Samothrace?

The Peraia of Samothrace translates as “the land opposite Samothrace” and refers to a series of colonies founded by Samothrace on the mainland north of the island, in this case along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thrace and more precisely between the Hebrus River and Mount Ismaros. It includes several settlements such as Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, founded from the 6^th century BC onward, whereas Tempira and Charakoma date from Roman times. Not all of these towns have been located or excavated, meaning we are moving in rather uncharted territory.

The area is interesting, however, because it was conquered by Philip II of Macedonia when he prepared his invasion of Asia. This allowed Alexander to march unopposed through this part of Thracia when he set out to cross the Hellespont after his father’s assassination.

Zone, which for some time was thought to be Mesimvria as described by Herodotus, is among the most significant towns that reached its peak during the 5^th-4^th century BC. Its decline set in after Alexander’s death with the constant Macedonian wars, until it became part of the Roman Empire, after which the city was abandoned during the 5^th century AD. Today, this archaeological site goes by the double name of Zone-Mesembria.

Excavations have brought to light Zone’s city walls as well as the smaller Hellenistic walls from that period when the city had shrunk to a square area in the southwest corner. Besides private houses and streets following the Hippodamian plan, the two most remarkable buildings are the Temple of Apollo and the House of the Amphorae.

Not much of the temple from the 6^th century BC is left standing. It measures 15 x 9 meters with a small pronaos and a cella resting on a three-stepped crepis. It has been established that it stood inside a larger complex (35 x 45 meters) with a paved courtyard and surrounded by a Stoa. The recent discovery of about 300 potsherds in and around this Temple of Apollo, however, makes it one of the most important discoveries because these potsherds carried inscriptions in Thracian. The language of the Thracians, which is thought to be closely related to Greek and uses Greek characters, is not known and has not yet been deciphered. Archaeologists have their work cut out for this is the largest collection of Thracian writings ever found.

The House of the Amphorae contains another unique treasure: a puzzling floor made from 188 amphorae turned upside down. They were aligned in such a way that all the pointed bottoms stood at the same level, notwithstanding the size of each amphora. This construction, dating from as early as the 6^th-5^th century BC, represents a rare method to protect the earthen floor against the dampness of the underlying soil. It sounds unbelievable that people some 2,500 years ago knew how to avoid groundwater destroying the foundations and floors of their residences – not to mention the problem with arthritis and rheumatism! The remains of a wide water gutter next to the house clearly illustrate the humidity problem.

In at least two locations, we can find remains of old wine presses. These were simple affairs using a lid on a huge jar or a slab above a quarried rectangular pit riddled with holes. The process was still known in the last century when people used to trample the grapes with their feet, squeezing the juice that would drip into the container underneath as the pulp would stay on top of the lid.

The fortification walls of Zone are interesting elements as well. They were reinforced by towers, and a close look at the walls reveals how different sections were built using different techniques – probably rebuilt and reinforced over time. The West Gate, the only entrance to the city, has also been found and cleared.

Zone is beyond doubt a town like many in southeastern Thrace, and its excavation has shed light on the daily life of its inhabitants from the Classical era to Hellenistic and even Roman times. The town provides an excellent insight into its wealth with the large houses, wine production centers, and kilns. This is not surprising given that the country was located on important communication routes (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara). In an earlier blog about the site of Halka Bunar in Bulgaria (see: Macedonia of Philip was also part of Bulgaria), I mentioned the roads that ran from the western Balkans to the coast of the Black Sea and Byzantium in the east, passing through Serdica and Philippopolis, and from Abdera and Mesembria across the Rhodope Mountains all the way to Seuthopolis.

Today, this part of the world has lost its importance and seems to regress into the oblivion of time. With civilizations rising and falling, roads and cities with their cultural significance and economic wealth inevitably leave their imprint. We only have to make the effort to look for it.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Zone-Mesembria]

Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece

Thracia is generally associated with Bulgaria, but originally its borders extended from the Istros River (now the Danube forming the border between Bulgaria and Romania) to the Aegean Sea and from the Hellespont, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea in the east to Philip’s Macedonia in the west. Today, the Greek province of Thrace still stretches from the Rhodope Mountains on its northern border with Bulgaria to the Aegean. It is squeezed between the Nestos River in the west and the Hebros in the east, forming the modern border with Turkey.

Because of its geographical position, Thrace was clearly a country at a significant crossroads. It functioned as a buffer zone in cultural and economic exchanges with its surrounding neighbors. 

When Philip became king of Macedonia, his eastern border was at the Strymon River, but he soon pushed further east, all the way to the Hellespont. After Alexander died in 323 BC, the cards were reshuffled between his generals, and eventually, it was Lysimachos who became King of Thrace. The Romans added the country to their empire and made it the Province of Thrace in 46 AD. Both Trajan and Hadrian (creating their own cities of Trajanopolis and Hadrianopolis) recognized the importance of Thrace, but, at the same time, left ownership in the hands of the indigenous population. 

One of the most characteristic heritages of Thracian civilization is their profusion of burial mounds – a tradition that goes back to the Bronze Age, the middle of the 4th-2nd millennium BC. In central Bulgaria alone, over 1,500 such tumuli exist in the Valley of the Thracian Kings, and so far, only 300 have been properly excavated. Among the most famous monuments to date are the richly painted Tomb of Kazanlak (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings) from the 4th century BC and the temple tomb of King Seuthes III, who died in 300 BC. 

Beyond Bulgaria, the typical Thracian tumuli are also found in Greece's most eastern Province of Thraiae. Here, the burial mound of Mikri Doxipara–Zoni is located. This one was constructed much later than the abovementioned ones, i.e., at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, when the region was under Roman rule. Obviously, the style and decoration of the tombs have evolved. From frescoed vaulted rooms to hold the deceased's cremated remains, to simple burials in the ground where the dead were put to rest together with their chariots and horses.

The tumulus of Doxipara is not very tall, hardly 7.5 meters high, but with its diameter of 60 meters, it is one of the largest in the region. It was situated close to the road that connected Hadrianopolis (modern Edirne in Turkey) to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv in Bulgaria). 

Excavations started in 2002 have revealed four large pits containing the cremated remains of three males and one female. A total of five chariots and their draft animals have been exposed and can be divided into two groups. The first group is made of two chariots labeled B and C. The second group consists of three chariots labeled A, D, and E. Although four-wheeled wagons have been found in Europe and Asia, Greece is the first.

Close to each group are separate horse burial sites where the spare horses were laid to rest: two horses on site A and three horses on site B. In all cases, after the chariots carried the dead to the burial site, they were interred together with their still-harnessed horses. The wheels had been taken from the chariots. Today, the bronze rims, bolts, and other elements remain in situ since the wooden components have disintegrated occasionally, leaving their imprint on the clay bottom. At first sight, these remains closely resemble the picture of the Thracian chariot discovered lately in Bulgaria (see: The story of the Thracian chariot). Still, this site is much and much more extensive. 

Horses were a clear symbol of wealth and status for their owners, and it is assumed that the burial site of Doxipara belonged to a wealthy family of landowners. However, no houses or nearby residences have been located as yet. 

The entire tumulus has been dug out and removed, but the wagons and horse skeletons are left exactly where they were uncovered. This makes it a fascinating place to visit!

The tomb also contains the human remains of three men and one woman who died in close succession. They were cremated in appropriate pits with small animals like piglets or birds and fruit like walnuts, almonds, and pine nuts. Once the fire was extinct, the usual offerings that accompanied them in the afterlife were placed around the remains together with vessels in bronze, glass, and terracotta containing water, wine, milk, or honey. Personal possessions such as bronze lamps and lanterns, weapons, small jewelry, etc., were also added. Once this ritual was completed, the pits were filled with earth, and slowly a mound covered those interred. 

On the eastern flank of the tumulus, two platforms were exposed, which served as funerary altars.  

The site of Doxipara is a unique example of the funerary procedures of the Thracians in Roman times, proving that their own customs still prevailed on whatever rites were current in the Roman Empire.

[Click here to see all the pictures of The Thracian Tombs of Doxipara]