Planetarium of Archimedes?

A fragment from a complex mechanism was discovered by chance near Olbia, Sardinia, and it soon became clear that the dented gear wheel showed similarities with the mechanism of Anticythera. This fragment, however, was made of a brass alloy unknown otherwise at the time. 

[Kircher's reconstruction of the sphere of Archimedes]

Thanks to the detailed writings of Cicero in the 1^st century BC, we know that Archimedes constructed a Planetarium (Orrery). The celestial globe is mentioned by Ovid in the 1^st century BC and by Claudian, a 4^th-century Latin poet associated with the court of Emperor Honorius in Mediolanum (Milan). 

When, in 212 BC, the Romans sacked Syracuse, Consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus brought to Rome a device that was built by the famous mathematician. It represented the motion of the Sun, Moon, and the planets reproduced on a sphere. In short, a modern Planetarium. 

It was Gaius Sulpicius Gallus, who reported the story as he had seen the object personally and knew how to operate it. Cicero was amazed that Archimedes had been able to generate the motion of the individual planets starting from a single rotation. The Planetarium was placed inside a glass sphere. This corresponds to what Archimedes wrote in a now-lost treatise On Sphere-Making detailing the construction of the Planetarium. 

Livy, who died in 17 AD, wrote that before the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, Gallus, an astronomer himself, used the Planetarium to predict a lunar eclipse on the night before the battle. The news was shared with his Roman legionnaires to prevent them from panicking, but the Macedonians freaked out. 

A first reconstruction based on the section of the gear wheel found near Olbia revealed that it counted 55 dents in total. Noteworthy is the shape of the dents, which is not triangular as in the case of the Anticythera mechanism but slightly curved as used in our modern gear wheels. This shape proves to be more efficient and allows a higher precision. In antiquity, these wheels were created manually and the craftsmen had to do without the use of our modern measuring and cutting tools, which emerged only a few centuries ago. 

Marcus Claudius Marcellus, owner of the Planetarium, was sent off to Spain to fight the Iberic Celts in 152 BC. It is reasonable to assume that Marcellus took the Planetarium with him – a sign of his status – and that his ship was wrecked in the region of Olbia, crashing the Planetarium. 

The Planetarium has been dated between the end of the 3^rd century BC and the mid-2^nd century BC. It thus predates the Anticythera mechanism from the 1^st century BC generally ascribed to Archimedes. However, the analog computer may well have been reproduced based on Archimedes’ description.

It must have been one of the marvels from Hellenistic times, many of which still remain to be discovered!

[the section found near Olbia is thoroughly discussed in this YouTube]

Alexandria, the first Renaissance

The term Hellenism is often interchanged with Greek, especially in art. Classical Greek art almost unnoticeably merged with Hellenistic art, and we owe it all to Alexander. In the wake of his conquests, Greek culture and language spread all over the ancient world, from Greece to India. Thanks to the common use of the Greek language, trade developed as merchants were always looking for business opportunities. Talking to buyers and sellers in the same language was a considerable asset. 

After the wars among Alexander’s successors were settled, peace returned in one form or another. Traffic and exchanges between East and West soon blossomed to reach a level never achieved before. 

Greek knowledge and culture were mixed and blended with the learning of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and India. In this context, Alexandria became the new center of the ancient world. 

It was in Alexandria that the first Library was created. In today’s words, this could be compared to a university. Ptolemy I Soter initially founded a Museum inside the Temple of the Muses (hence the name Museum), where all art and sciences were brought together. 

It seems that the Library was, in fact, an extension of the temple built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, his son. Like every other building in Alexandria, we only have a slight idea of what it looked like, as, to this day, very few remains have been unearthed. An outstanding effort to visualize the great Library was made by Kevin Kok, Senior Level Artist at Ubisoft Montreal, to recreate the complex as it would or could have been (see: The Library of Alexandria). In time, the terms Museum and Library were used interchangeably. 

The Library of Alexandria certainly met Alexander’s own desire to create a research center where knowledge from East and West would be collected to be shared by all. The very concept existed already in the Academy and the Lyceum of Athens, but at Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the ancient world had grown into another dimension. We must credit Ptolemy for understanding Alexander’s vision and executing his ambition. 

Eventually, great scientists flocked to Alexandria, exchanging and discussing their understanding and perception of the world. Much research was done at the Museum, which held an astronomical observatory and rooms for anatomical dissections, and where all sorts of experiments were carried out. The site also included botanical and zoological gardens. How modern is that! 

It is generally accepted that Dimitrios of Phaleron was responsible for the organization. With the budget made available by Ptolemy II, he collected all the books he could, including the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. Ptolemy III continued this trend, and the Library could boast of having half a million parchment rolls. Among them were all the great Greek works from Homer onward! 

After the death of Dimitrios, Zenodotus of Ephesus took over, assisted by Callimachus of Cyrene. This Callimachus is credited with being the first to classify 120,000 works of prose and poetry, sorting them by author and subject. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was appointed around 235 BC as the new head of the Library. He concentrated on mathematics, astronomy, and geography. We’ll remember Eratosthenes’ contribution to calculating the planet Earth's size after Pythagoras had declared that the Earth was a sphere (see: Alexander missed Eratosthenes by less than a century). 

Great scientists widely contributed to the Library. Euclid wrote his Elements of Geometry, which is still used today, and also a book on astronomy and one on perspective, the Optica. Archimedes, a native of Syracuse, probably studied in Alexandria. He is best known for his theory of calculating the volume, which he discovered while bathing. He was so excited about his discovery that he ran out of his house, stark naked, shouting, “Eureka!” - I found it! (see: Archimedes, the most illustrious citizen of Syracuse). The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus of Nicaea, who made great use of the Library of Alexandria.  Besides being a geographer and a mathematician, he was also the inventor of trigonometry, and most famous for discovering the precession of the equinoxes in the late 2^nd century BC. 

Lesser known but equally important is Ctesibius of Alexandria, the inventor of toys and devices using air under pressure, i.e., pneumatics. He created automatons such as a water clock, a fire engine, and even a singing statue. He also invented the first keyboard-wind instrument, the hydraulis, a recreation of which is exhibited in the Museum of Dion, Greece (see: Close encounter with an ancient Water-Organ). 

By 62 AD, Hero of Alexandria even invented the first steam engine! Imagine our world if this invention had not been lost. 

The list of scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, physicians, and inventors seems endless. All their knowledge was born in Alexandria, from where it spread over the entire ancient world for more than three hundred years! The famous Lighthouse of Alexandria, the Pharos, was one of the Seven Wonders of the World, shining its light over a great distance thanks to an intricate system of mirrors. How it actually worked remains obscure. It was probably damaged by the catastrophic earthquake that hit the entire coast of North Africa in 365 AD. Repairs never resuscitated this unique structure. 

Alexandria was also the center where Medical Science was born under Herophilus. He was the first scientist to systematically perform dissections of dead people, often in public, to explain his actions to those interested in these matters. His books are lost but were frequently quoted in the 2nd century AD by the physician Claudius Galenus, better known as Galen of Pergamon (see: Hello? Dr. Galen?) 

Other Libraries were known from antiquity (see: Libraries in antiquity, a short overview), but none surpassed the one in Alexandria. 

After centuries of glory, this great Library succumbed to earthquakes and repeated fires. The lack of funds to sponsor and maintain the premises was another reason for its degradation. Eventually, the knowledge was transferred to Antioch, and with the Arab conquest to Baghdad. We owe very much to Caliph Al-Mansur (754-775 AD), who had a vivid interest in Greek science. He ordered the Greek documents to be translated into Arabic. Over the centuries, these translations traveled back west to become available in Latin. In fact, Al-Mansur saved ancient Greek literature and science for us to enjoy today. This entire process is developed in detail by John Freely in his book Aladdin’s Lamp. How Greek science came to Europe through the Islamic World.

Boarding a cruise ship in antiquity

Archimedes and his “Eureka” are common knowledge, but few people know that he designed an enormous cruise ship, the Syracusia.

It happened during the reign of King Hieron II of Syracuse, who in 240 BC ordered Archias of Corinth to execute the plans. The design was a very ambitious one, and we may wonder how on earth anyone in antiquity could possibly build the biggest and largest vessel ever. Money clearly was not an issue, for it seems that even the best was good enough! What’s more surprising is that the project was completed in one year by 300 craftsmen.

Athenaeus gives us a very detailed description of the Syracusia and its cargo. She could carry 1940 passengers, soldiers, and crew, and boasted plush stables for twenty horses, each with its own stall. Next was a storage room for the horses’ fodder and the quarters reserved for the riders and their slaves.

Figures from antiquity are not always reliable, but it is generally accepted that the Syracusia had a length of 110 meters, which is more than twice the largest merchant ship in those days.

Wood from the Etna was implemented, and the doors were made of cypress and citrus wood. Hemp had been imported from Iberia to make the cables, whereas pitch and more hemp came from the Rhone Valley. As soon as one deck of the ship was completed, it was covered with slabs of lead. 

The upper deck was supported by three-meter-high Atlantes or Telamones, replacing regular columns (see: The Valley of Temples at Akragas). The very top of the ship was a promenade reserved for the guests who could wander through gardens filled with different species of trees and flowers. These were watered through well-hidden lead pipes. Individual sections of this deck were made more comfortable with shaded roofs or tents covered with branches of ivy and vine. The layout inevitably led the guests to the Temple of Aphrodite, paved with agate. It was furnished with statues, and its walls were covered with frescoes. The entire ship was further adorned with statues and vases, painted walls, and fancy earthenware. Ivory and precious marble were lavishly used.

The second deck served as lodging for the passengers and counted 142 cabins, all paved with mosaics. Together, these individual pavements told the whole story of the Iliad. The guests could enjoy the comforts of a bathroom and a gymnasium, relax in a common dining room, or withdraw in the serene setting of the library and drawing room. The entertainment of the passengers was guaranteed!  

An onboard kitchen was a must, and Athenaeus confirmed that there were ovens and mills. Freshwater was stored near the head of the ship in a cistern that could hold as much as 78,000 liters. This water tank was caulked with pitch and covered with tarpaulins. Another cistern contained seawater to store the cook’s fish supply. This one, in turn, was coated with lead. Nothing is said about the service on board, the people responsible for the maintenance, and the cleaning.

The Syracusia also had its own army on board,  which, according to the sources, varied between 200 and 400 men. They were housed on a special deck in front of the ship where a giant catapult was mounted. This machine could shoot a stone weighing ninety kilograms to a distance of 200 meters. Eight towers, each manned with two archers and four men in full armor, further assured the defense of this unique vessel against any possible attack. The ship was additionally equipped with four wooden defense towers. The crew to steer this oversized ship was probably handpicked. It is said there were twenty banks of rowers. The entire ship was protected by a surrounding palisade, making enemy boarding impossible. 

All the components of the Syracusia were beyond normal proportions as Archimedes clearly thought out of the box! Besides, this is one example where his famous screw was successfully implemented to pump out the bilge water.

The number of provisions on board was equally huge. Athenaeus once again provides the facts and figures: 90,000 bushels of grain, 10,000 amphorae of Sicilian salt fish (is this the famous garum?), some 500-600 tons of wool (for what purpose?), and 20,000 talents were spent on “other cargo”. All these goods were stored in the lowest deck.

To ensure safe anchoring, the Syracusia counted eight iron anchors. Unfortunately, these were used only once because that huge ship made only one single trip across the Mediterranean to Alexandria in Egypt. It is important to realize that only a few ports were large enough to receive this size of vessel. As far as I know, besides Syracuse, only Rhodes, Pergamon, and probably Portus/Rome offered the necessary space and maneuverability for the Syracusia. 

In the end, all King Hieron could do, it seems, was to present the Syracusia as a gift to Ptolemy III Euergetes. It was eventually renamed Alexandreia. Otherwise, nobody knows what happened to this proud, colossal ship afterward.

[The picture of the mosaic representing the Death of Archimedes is from NYU Mathematics]

The treasures of the Anticythera shipwreck

When I visited Athens’ Archaeological Museum for the first time in the 1970s, I was fascinated by a group of marble sculptures gathered in the downstairs garden. Their provenance was off the island of Anticythera, rescued by sponge divers in the early days of the 20^th century. The parts of the marble statues that sank into the sandy seabed had been well preserved, but those that had been exposed to the salty water had suffered seriously from erosion. As a result, some statues had turned into grotesque shapes that still suggested their noble origins.

Key finds, however, were a life-size bronze statue of a young hero or god, possibly from a Peloponnesian workshop made around 340-330 BC, the bronze head of a philosopher probably from a Cynic school, created in the 3^rd century BC, and an intriguing lump of bronze gearwheels known as the Mechanism of Anticythera from the 2^nd century BC. Other smaller items were evidence of daily life aboard the ship, such as cooking and storage vessels, ceramic tiles from the cabin’s roof, as well as a number of bronze coins; also, some jewelry and fine glassware were found at the site. In 1976, Cousteau also explored the sea bottom and found more objects like small bronze statues, but also bronze and silver coins, most of them minted in Pergamon.

All these objects were shipwrecked, apparently during a storm, near the island of Anticythera between 70 and 60 BC. The vessel, one of the largest of her time (twice the size of an average ship), could enter only a handful of harbors in Asia Minor, among which were Pergamon, Ephesos, Rhodes, and Delos. This led, together with the abovementioned coins, to the conclusion that the ship must have sailed from Pergamon, heading for Rome. At that time, Rome ruled over the eastern Mediterranean, and Greek art was very popular.

Yet the story behind the so-called Mechanism of Anticythera is far more complex. Altogether 82 separate fragments have been retrieved, but it is mainly the cluster of the three largest pieces that holds the story. This sophisticated machine dates from the 2^nd century BC, and initially, nobody understood what it was. A handful of reconstructions were built mostly in the second half of the 20^th century, but early research lacked the technology we have today to visualize the intrinsic elements, such as the use of digital photography, CT-scans, surface imaging called PTM, and X-rays in 2-D and 3-D.

The technical details are far beyond my capabilities and comprehension, but I find it terribly exciting that such a complex mechanism ever existed two thousand years ago. The conclusion is that the mechanism was an astronomical calendar, a computer avant-la-lettre that enabled its user to track down the cycles of our solar system.

An in-depth analysis of the dials and their dents has revealed that the mechanism is based on a 19-year calendar with 223 lunar months, including eclipse predictions. All twelve months of the year have been identified and recognized as belonging to the Corinthian calendar. This led to believe that the mechanism was either constructed in Corinth or in one of its colonies, like Syracuse, home of Archimedes. Researchers also deciphered a small dial serving to indicate the four-year cycle of the Olympic Games, the two-year cycle of the Nemean Games, as well as the Delphic and Corinthian Games. The other side of the mechanism portrays the interaction of the Sun, Moon, stars, and all five planets.

Today it is generally accepted that this is an ancient analog computer and may well have been created by nobody less than Archimedes. After the Romans conquered Sicily, the mechanism was probably taken to Pergamon and finally lost at sea during its transfer to Rome in the first century AD.

There is this most interesting documentary posted on YouTube, “Decoding the Mechanism of Anticythera” that shows a detailed approach to the entire research and its conclusions. It makes you wonder what would have happened if Archimedes had not been killed “by accident” by the invading Romans or if his heritage would have fallen into capable hands, i.e., somebody who could value – if not, understand - his inventions. It took mankind another thousand years to reinvent this machine!

The grandeur of Ephesos

It is quite unusual that after so many years and so many visits, I never put anything in writing about beautiful Ephesos, the number one excursion for any tourist to the west coast of Turkey.

The first time I visited the site was during my very first tour of Turkey, and it must be said, with an incompetent guide who claimed he knew it all and treated us as little children. So I gave up listening to his incorrect explanations and drifted off into my own world. He took us to Ephesos in the morning, when huge crowds of visitors were spilling out of the many buses on what seemed like a large parking lot. I remembered my lack of breathing space, the loud talking of the many guides in different languages, and how a solid mass of people pushed me and carried me through the streets of old Ephesos – my greatest apprehension when I visited an antique site. Useless to point out that these circumstances were far from ideal and that my perception of this old city did not match any of the many photographs I had seen over the years with near-empty streets to tempt vast crowds of visitors.

Luckily, this unfortunate experience was soon obliterated by my next visit with Peter Sommer during his tour In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. To my greatest surprise, the parking lot turned out to be much smaller than what I remembered, hardly filled by a handful of cars and maybe two or three buses. The streets of antique Ephesos seemed deserted this late in the afternoon, and the different buildings now truly showed at their best – the true way to look at the city from Alexander’s point of view. Only now did I see how beautiful this site really was! What a relief!

Ephesos, the Turkish Efes, has a magical ring that may go back to antiquity. I always saw it as the ideal Greek city in Asia Minor, where Alexander and so many other great men from times past had written history. So it was no surprise that my heart was skipping a beat! My first steps over the old pavement were insecure, for my legs were shaking, and my knees felt weak. How many sandals had stridden over these polished stones? How many people through the ages had walked here, all carrying their own burdens and having their own dreams? I ran my hands over the columns and walls, just to make sure they were real – and maybe, just maybe, they had something to tell me? I know this sounds crazy, but I can’t help it. At last, I was face to face with the past; it was so palpable, so very much alive!

Before heading to the main street, I followed the water supply system to a rather large round construction where the water was collected based on Archimedes’ laws. From here, and thanks to an ingenious system of earthen pipes, the water was distributed all over the lower city of Ephesos.

As I stroll down further, my imagination is taking wings! Past the Temple of Domitian lies the Odeon from 150 AD with beautifully preserved arches, originally used as a Bouleuterion with enough seating for 1400 officials. Like so often, the Odeon could be entirely shaded from the sun or the rain if needed. Behind me are the Baths of Varius, now richly decorated with bright red poppies. I marvel at the well-preserved and perfectly connected terracotta water drains all over the city.

At the Gate of Hercules, the passage suddenly narrows to open up again into Curetes Street. It seems that originally this 4th-century gate had an upper floor and was decorated with winged goddesses of victory. Curetus Street runs downhill, straight to the Library of Celsus, and is lined with columns on both sides from where wealthy and powerful citizens once looked down on me. Behind these columns runs a mosaic-paved sidewalk giving access to the cool vaulted shops and some official buildings. These are mere marble skeletons with drafty doorways and gaping windows that once must have created a feeling of safety and a certain complacency. Wooden doors with copper and bronze fittings would have locked out the street noise. The houses had no windows on the street side, only on the inside looking out onto the Atrium or the Peristyle. In summer, these spaces were shaded to keep out the sun and the heat, while in the colder winter months, the rooms were comfortably refurbished and enhanced with floor heating. This luxurious main street, I am told, was lit at night with torches – how I envy those days!

Further down the street, I pass the large Fountain of Trajan, once showing the emperor’s stately statue, and in its shade stands the marble Temple of Hadrian. The friezes from the entrance walls are copies of the originals now visible at the local museum of Selçuk. Yet it is great to have works of art, even copies, back in place to give an idea of what it must have looked like. With nobody walking in my way, I can step back for a better look, and the low sun adds just enough to the atmosphere to drift back in time. Behind this Temple of Hadrian, the Romans built their Baths in the fourth century AD, without forgetting the basic need for latrines, the public toilets in an adjacent room. They are simple cozy seats next to one another, where you sit above your own hole to do what you have to do. The underlying ditch is at least one meter deep and runs downhill like the main street. I just hope the water will run fast enough to keep the air clean. In front of the seats, there is a gutter through which water would be flowing and where you could dip the sponge on a stick to clean yourself.

Across the street from Hadrian’s Temple, I notice two spiraled columns, definitely marking a special entrance. For many years, archaeologists have been working hard to restore two of the seven villas of the rich and famous, generally called the Terrace Houses (see: Ephesos and its Terrace Houses). Two houses may not seem much, but they do total 78 rooms, no small residences dating generally from the first to the third century. The elegant frescos and marble or mosaic floors have nothing to envy to Pompeii or Herculaneum, they are simply superb. Many tourists skip this corner of Ephesos simply because a separate entrance fee is requested, but I think this is entirely unjustified. The glass walkways and stairs lead the visitors through the premises without obstructing the panoramic view. The colors are as fresh as if they were applied just yesterday, unbelievable! If there is one place to get a true feeling of the Roman lifestyle, this is the place!

With or without the stop at the villas, the visitor now reaches the Library of Celsus, which has been beckoning from the onset. It is indeed an impressive building with a carefully reconstructed façade, yet it is consistent with the grandeur and wealth of Ephesos. The high Corinthian columns support richly decorated ceiling caissons and frame the statues of four goddesses on their high pedestal, i.e., Sofia (wisdom), Arete (virtue), Ennoia (intelligence), and Episteme (knowledge). It was Consul Gaius Julius Aquila who built this Library around 105-107 AD for his father, a worthy present, I would say. The inside walls were once covered with colored marble and still vaguely show traces of the niches where the papyrus scrolls were kept. The space is quite grand, measuring 11 x 17 meters, and inevitably, I am reminded of Ptolemy’s library as shown in Oliver Stone’s movie Alexander. How I would have loved to roam here in those days!

Behind me is a strange, round structure that seemed unidentified at the time of my visit, but I recently heard that this could be the tomb of Arsinoe, Queen Cleopatra’s sister.

Through the three arches of the adjacent Gate of Commerce (first century AD), I reach the Agora, the marketplace that was surrounded by an impressive Stoa with Corinthian columns. This huge Agora covers a surface of 110x110 meters – quite incredible. The road from here to the connection with the road to the harbor shows deep ruts in the pavement, testifying to the heavy traffic that must have passed through. Excavations towards the harbor are still underway, and the area is not accessible yet. At the landside end of that street lies the huge theater, originally a Greek construction, masterfully nestled against the slopes of Mount Pion, that was renovated and enlarged by the Romans to offer seating for no less than 25,000 spectators. From one of the top rows, I have a sweeping view over the entire city, all the way to the green marshes now covering the ancient harbor. It is wonderful to sit here for a while to take in the scenery and imagine the hustle and bustle of antiquity.

Alexander saw, of course, a different city with different buildings, but the location and probably the layout of Ephesos were very much the same. For more about this, see Alexander’s presence in Ephesos.

Archimedes, the most illustrious citizen of Syracuse

If one name is immediately associated with Syracuse, it certainly is the mathematical genius Archimedes (ca 287-212 BC). Yes, we all know he was Greek, but never realized that he actually lived and died in Sicily, which was then part of Magna Graecia.

It is unclear whether he was a close friend or a relative of King Hieron II of Syracuse (c.308-215 BC). Still, we know that the king sponsored Archimedes’ trip to Alexandria to study at the renowned Library. Here, he seems to have met his friend Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene, whom he mentioned in the introduction of two of his works. 

Archimedes was working for Hieron II and his son Gelon II, constructing devices such as catapults, burning mirrors, and an iron claw, a sort of crane with a grappling hook that could lift the ships out of the water and make them capsize and sink. He is also famous for inventing an orrery, i.e., a mechanical model of the solar system. The sun is at its center, and the Earth rotates around it. The device could predict solar and lunar eclipses. Archimedes established the relationship between the circumference and the diameter of a circle. 

His best-known invention happened while he took a bath and noticed that the water level rose when he stepped into the tub. This led to his theory to calculate the volume of an object, and he was so excited about his discovery that he ran out of his house, stark naked, shouting “Eureka!” I found it! Vitruvius says that Archimedes applied this principle when King Hieron II asked him to determine whether the votive crown he had ordered for a temple was indeed made with pure gold he had supplied. He suspected the goldsmith of adding some cheaper silver. A charming anecdote, no doubt, but it may not be entirely accurate as the calculations are far more complex than that.

Another invention called Archimedes’ screw has been used successfully over the centuries and still is in those places where water has to be moved from a lower level to higher grounds or canals. His system, consisting of a revolving screw inside a cylinder, even applies to moving coal or grain. There are, however, discussions that tend to attribute the invention to the Babylonians, who used the principle to irrigate their Hanging Gardens.

As written down by Athenaeus of Naucratis, history tells us that King Hieron II asked Archimedes in 240 BC to build a large ship to carry huge supplies. It should also be used in war as well as for pleasure. It was, in fact, a catamaran weighing 4,000 tons for which timber from Mount Etna was used together with rosewood and ivory from Africa and rope from Iberia – nothing less! It could transport 600 people and was enhanced with a temple dedicated to Aphrodite, a gymnasium, and even a garden! Because of its size, the ship that was appropriately called the Syracusia would leak considerably through the hull, but Archimedes’ screw could pump the excess bilge water out. As the boat was far too big to anchor in most harbors, Hieron II generously sent it to Ptolemy IV Philopator in Egypt, loaded with wheat, when Egypt was struck by famine.

It should be noted that Hieron II perfectly realized the advantages of taking the side of Rome rather than resisting it, and his sixty-year-long reign brought the city great prosperity. This especially shows in the colossal altar used to sacrifice to Zeus. As many as 450 bulls could be offered in one day. It is still there for us to see, nearly 200m long and 23 meters wide, making it the most enormous altar ever known. Initially, it was 15 meters high until the Spaniards reused the stones to fortify the harbor of Syracuse in 1526. We also owe this king the construction of the largest theater of the Greek world of his day, which could hold 15,000 people. When Hieron II died in 215 BC, his successor decided to choose the Carthaginians' side, who were threatening Rome at the time. This event had unfortunate results for our dear Archimedes.

 

During the Second Punic War, the Romans, after a two-year-long siege, finally took possession of Syracuse. The leading general, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, had issued clear instructions that whoever found Archimedes should treat him kindly and not harm him. Yet an inpatient soldier, noticing that the old man refused to meet his general, killed Archimedes, totally absorbed in his mathematical diagram. Apparently, the soldier had not realized that he was addressing Archimedes – this is at least what Plutarch tells us.

Not a single trace is left of Archimedes in today’s Syracuse, except for a square in the heart of Ortygia that is named after him, Piazza Archimede. Recently, a tiny science museum has opened there, entirely dedicated to the city’s famous citizen, exhibiting many interactive displays and models that illustrate some of his inventions and theories, like the Stomachon, a 14-piece composition puzzle; a sphere contained by the cylinder; and the burning mirrors. These are all very intriguing and very much worth the visit.

[Drawings taken from Wikipedia]

Aladdin’s Lamp by John Freely

Aladdin’s Lamp: How Greek Science Came to Europe Through the Islamic World by John Freely. (ISBN 0307277836). An all-encompassing title and ditto subject! What a book! My memory falls short, and I cannot keep up with all the names and the inventions, treatises, analyses, and discoveries that were made over the centuries in so many fields: geometry, philosophy, cosmology, physics, mathematics, medicine, astrology, and astronomy, to name just a few! 

As the title states, Greek science traveled from Athens to Alexandria. With the spread of Islam to Baghdad, many works were translated into Arabic. But Islam also went westward through northern Africa to Spain, where the Moors ruled for several centuries. Some textbooks were translated into Spanish during the Reconquista by the different Christian kings of Spain. Later, power in Europe shifted to Sicily, where Arabic documents were consulted and translated into Latin, picked up by several popes who hired and invited such scientists to their court, just like the eastern rulers had done before them. With the creation of the first universities, the Greek theories of men like Aristotle and Euclid were reinterpreted and occasionally translated into English. 

On the other hand, works that had stayed in Byzantium found their way, if not burned by the Crusaders, to the powerful Italian city-states, where they were translated into Latin. It is pretty amazing to read how early discoveries were reviewed and reworked over the centuries, while others were totally ignored until later scientists reinvented theories that were, in fact, more than a millennium old. This is not exactly bedtime reading, but it is absolutely worthwhile to understand the lost richness of antiquity and our modern world. 

John Freely starts in Miletus with Thales (end 7th/early 6th century BC), Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, and Hecataeus. He then moves to the 6th century (mainly in Magna Graecia, southern Italy) with Pythagoras of Samos, known for his famous theorem, which states that in a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides. Xenophanes of Colophon, Philolaus of Crotona, Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Empedocles of Acragas, Leucippus of Miletus, Democritus of Abdera (Thracia), and Anaxagoras of Clazomenae – and more. 

He then moved to classical Athens during the times of Pericles, when Plato founded the Academy (to be compared with the colleges in the first European Universities), and when Hippocrates of Cos wrote the Hippocratic Oath used by physicians for centuries. This is the time of Eudoxus of Cnidos, the greatest mathematician (including arithmetic, geometry, harmonics, and astronomy), Callipsus of Cyzicus, the astronomer who studied our planets, and the great Aristotle of Stagira, who was competent in a wide range of sciences: logic, metaphysics, rhetoric, theology, politics, economy, meteorology, literature, ethics, psychology, physics, mechanics, astronomy, cosmology, biology, botany, natural history, and zoology (a knowledge-baggage that Alexander the Great must have picked up, of course!). Among his pupils, we find Heraclides Ponticus (from the Black Sea) and Theophrastus, who was Aristotle’s successor at the Athenian Lyceum. 

I’m not going to list all the scientists John Freely treats in this book, as the list would be too long. I only wanted to put the above names down because I’m terribly impressed with their sheer numbers and the knowledge of so many scientists so early in our history. 

With the decline of the Macedonian rule due to repeated civil wars, Athens was soon surpassed by Alexandria with its precious Museum and Library, founded by Ptolemy (one of the generals and successors of Alexander the Great) and further developed by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. In the early 3rd century BC, the Library counted more than half a million scrolls. 

That era was full of great names referred to time and again in later centuries. One of them was Euclid (ca. 295 BC), whose extant textbook on geometry is still in use today; he also laid the foundations of algebra and number theory and wrote a textbook on astronomy and an elementary treatise on perspective. Greek mathematical physics reached its peak with Archimedes of Syracuse (ca 287-212 BC), famous for his inventions, among which was a model of the celestial motions (mechanism of Antikythera?) and his screw used to move water to a higher level. He worked as a military engineer, discovered the concept of specific gravity, studied the fluids in equilibrium, and found that the Earth rotated around the sun! And our faithful geographer Strabo (63 BC-25 AD) also made encyclopedic descriptions of land and sea, animals, plants, fruits, etc. Finally, we should not forget to mention the astrology and geography works of Claudius Ptolemaeus (ca 100-170 AD), referred to as Ptolemy. He cataloged the stars, wrote extensively about trigonometry, and researched light. 

The Alexandrian Library was active at least till the early 6th century AD. Although the Romans controlled most of the Mediterranean by the mid-second century BC, Rome never reached the level of Alexandria. Yet Rome was not left out of the inevitable cultural exchanges. We are all familiar with the accounts of Pliny the Elder (ca 23-79 AD) about the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, or Seneca’s letters, dialogues, and tragedies, for instance. 

With the rise of Islam, tables were turned around. It took only a century for the armies of Islam to be stopped in southern France in 732 during the Battle of Tours. From Jerusalem, they moved to Damascus and soon reached Baghdad, which was established as the capital in 762-765. It so happened that the ruling caliphs had books translated from foreign languages into Arabic. This meant that books on arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and practical skills such as surveying, meteorology, and civil engineering in Greek, Latin, Byzantine Greek, Pahlavi, Neo-Persian, and Syriac found their way east. Local astrologers added their own knowledge; mathematical works were reviewed, and algebra found its own place. Philosophers and scientists got involved, and it is impressive to see the explosion of new calculations and discoveries. 

I must admit that I’m not familiar with their names, except maybe Al-Biruni (973-1050). He wrote many works on astronomy, astrology, chronology, time measurement, geography, geodesy, cartography, and mathematics (including arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry). He also treated mechanics, medicine, pharmacology, meteorology, mineralogy, history, philosophy, religion, literature, and magic. Additionally, he made a detailed description of his own inventions and the instruments he used. To complete the report of this genius, it should be noted that he spoke Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Chorasmian, and Turkic, besides Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac! We honestly have no idea of the wealth of knowledge that brought Baghdad to the center of the world. 

Meanwhile, Moorish Spain knew a Renaissance of its own. Cordoba was promoted to capital in 784-786, and the independence of Al-Andalus was proclaimed by the end of the 10th century. This was the time of El Cid when the Christian opposition fought for the Reconquista. It ended with the fall of Cordoba in 1236. During Moorish rule, Greek and Arabic manuscripts were used to study and create new theories. Cordoba had a reputed school of medicine from which many prominent physicians emerged. Also, astrology flourished besides science, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy, and many works were translated into Spanish. It is surprising to read that a score of women copyists were employed in that field! 

In these golden times, Christian scholars came to study in Spain. We owe it to them that many scientific works were translated from Arabic into Latin, often with the help of local multilingual scribes. When the Crusaders established their first states in cities like Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem, east and west met again. New volumes were translated from Arabic into Latin, while additional treatises were written in Arabic, Latin, and Greek. All these translations were most significant, for there was no other way for scholars to learn about previous inventions or theories. 

By the 13th century, Europe was slowly awakening from the dark Middle Ages, now that an enormous amount of Graeco-Arabic works were translated into Latin. New universities were opened one after the other, in Bologna (1088), Paris (1150), Oxford (1167), Salerno (1173), Valencia (1178), Reggio (1188), Vicenza (1204), Cambridge (1209), Salamanca (1218), Padua (1222), etc. By 1500, Europe counted some eighty universities! Despite the goodwill of so many scholars, they all had to reckon with the Vatican. The Pope maintained that the Earth was the center of the universe because God had created the world, meaning that many discoveries and proofs otherwise remained unpublished or were silenced. The Polish Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543), the German Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), and the Italian Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) faced hard times because of that.

 

When we reach the days of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), it is surprising to read that he made no reference to any Arabic scientist. Instead, he widely credited his European predecessors, most notably Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and the ancient Greeks like Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius, Aristarchus, Diophantus, Ptolemy, and Pappus of Alexandria.

Since I am far more interested in antiquity than in any other time of history, my summary may seem distorted. Still, I can assure the prospective reader that this book has enough facts, figures, and names to place every scholar in the proper context. Plenty of drawings illustrate the significance and consequences of many of the theories. It’s a kind of reference work to be consulted on many occasions!