An introduction to the Scythians

The Scythians are mentioned in different contexts throughout my blog, but they have never been discussed as a people. 

[Picture from World History Encyclopedia.  A map illustrating the expansion of the warrior nomad Scythians between the 7th and 3rd century BC across Asia and Europe. (Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-SA)]

We have to go back to Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who mentions the Scythians for the first time. The author concentrates on Ukraine, although his description might well extend to the tribes in Central Asia. When talking about the Scythians, we refer to many different tribes roaming the steppes north of the “civilized” world. Their habitat stretched roughly from the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea (north of Persia) to Central Asia and the desert of Mongolia. At this far easterly end, the Chinese protected themselves from Scythian invasions by building their famous Great Wall. 

Generally living in small bands, they attacked the cities and towns situated south of their extensive east-west frontier. After a more or less sudden devastating incursion, they would withdraw with their booty into their vast nomadic Eurasian steppe lands. Over the years, some tribes settled as farmers, but they were not interested in founding cities of their own. 

In Central Asia and Persia, the Scythians were called Sacae as both tribes shared the same Indo-European language and lifestyle. These Sacae are called Skudat, which the Persians understood as Sakâ. The Greeks, in turn, used the name Skythes or Skythai. No wonder the Scythians show up so often in history under a different disguise. 

The Persians suffered repeated attacks from the Scythians, who, even shortly, dominated the Medes in the 7th century BC. They are also known to have played a significant role in the Sack of Nineveh in 612 BC. 

As a result of Miletus’ colonization, the Kingdom of the Bosporus emerged (see: The Kingdom of the Bosporus). It reached its peak between the 6th and the 3rd century BC. During that period, the new settlers maintained strong cultural and trade relations with the Scythians. Over the centuries, the kingdom with its capital of Panticapaeum became a melting pot of civilizations as the Greeks mingled with neighboring Pontic Scythians. 

An earlier blog, A cast helmet from Central Asia, discussed a helmet found near Maracanda, in the tomb of a Sacae leader. The technique of cast helmets was customary in China, which proves that these nomadic Scythians lived far to the east. This particular helmet dated from the 6th century BC and became obsolete afterward. 

The Massagetai tribe living near the Aral Sea was also Scythian. In 529 BC, Cyrus the Great attacked this tribe, ruled by Queen Tomyris. That happened after Cyrus’ negotiation to marry her failed. She bluntly refused to submit to him. As a result, the king attacked her and her tribe, and she died on the battlefield. 

The Scythians also successfully withstood Darius the Great’s attack at the beginning of the 5th century BC. Later that century, the Pontic Scythians took possession of Thrace. 

In the 5th century BC, the Odrysian Kingdom was founded – merely a union of more than forty tribes that turned Thracia into a powerful state. The Odrysians and the Scythians had reached peaceful relations through their inter-dynastic marriages, which led to establishing the border of their lands at the Danube River. Both peoples mingled and were generally recognized as Scythians. Their agreement, however, was not meant to last as, in the end, southern and central Thrace were divided among the Odrysian kings. Eventually, Philip II conquered their land in 340 BC. The Getae ruled the northeast section. 

Alexander attacked these Getae after his pursuit of the Triballians to the banks of the Danube River in 335 BC. The Triballians had sought refuge on an island. Instead of attacking them in that awkward position, Alexander decided to isolate them and go after the Getae on the other bank of the Danube. He managed to ferry 4,000 infantrymen and 1,500 cavalry across the wide river by night. No wonder the Getae were in shock when they woke up with this army on their land and fled to the hinterland (see: Crossing the Danube River). 

A noteworthy Odrysian Thracian is Sitalces. His true origins remain relatively obscure, but apparently, he was a prince, maybe even the son of King Cersobleptes of the Odrysian Thracians. He joined Alexander’s army and proved to be a competent commander who led the Thracian javelin men on more than one occasion. The Thracians appear again at the Battle of Gaugamela. They were placed with the main body of the Macedonian troops, under the command of Sitalces once again (see: Sitalces, commander of the Thracians). Sitalces was also one of the three generals who, on Alexander’s orders, executed Parmenion in Ecbatana (see: The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution). 

Back in Central Asia, we should mention the story of a Scythian chief named Karthasis, who offered one of his daughters – most probably one of those warlike Scythian young women - in marriage to Alexander. The King declined, but the story may well have triggered the tale of the Amazons. 

In 329 BC, Alexander marched north to Cyropolis, a city founded by Cyrus the Great. But Cyropolis was situated about 10 km away from the Jaxartes River. Alexander felt that it didn’t serve his purpose, i.e., to protect the country against the nomads inhabiting the lands beyond the majestic river. He decided to build a city of his own, Alexandria-Eschate or Alexandria-the-Furthermost (Ultima), right on the banks of the Jaxartes – the location of today’s Khodjend in Tajikistan. Shortly after starting his project, a general revolt broke out, and the entire area exploded into armed resistance, making it clear that the Macedonians were not welcome. The Scythians on the opposite shore of the Jaxartes also grew furious. Consequently, Alexander set the crossing of the river in motion. He conceived a flotilla of large rafts made of stuffed leather tent covers, rigged together and covered with a sturdy platform. These rafts could carry a heavy contingent of men and even horses. Besides, Alexander equipped them with long-range catapults, a kind of machine the Scythians would discover for the first time.

When the Scythians recovered from their first shock and surprise, they played their favorite maneuver by riding and attacking in circles. Alexander threw in a mixed force of infantry and cavalry and successfully broke the circle, sending the Scythians to retreat after being hunted down by Alexander for several miles into the desert (see: Alexandria-Eschate and Cyropolis). 

The above gives insight into the Scythians' link between Greece, Persia, India, and China. It may somehow have laid the foundation of the Silk Road as a vast trade network. 

Although the Scythians have no written records, they left us substantial archaeological evidence of their high skills in metalwork. Monumental burial mounts across the Eurasian steppe reveal high-quality jewelry, weapons, vessels, horse harnesses, belts, and other decorative items, mostly made of gold. 

Inevitably, some of these Scythian tribes, such as the Pontic Scythians, settled as farmers, while others kept roaming the vast steppes from Mongolia to the Black Sea area. In the early Middle Ages, the most westerly tribes blended in and mixed with the early Slavs.

How to value a burial mound

It is hard to imagine finding burial mounds in Ukraine, which comes in the news because of its constant frictions and wars with Russia. What do we know about its history and its culture?

Until recently, farmers had little or no concern about what these 4,000-year-old mounds on their fields might contain, even when they came across a skeleton. Under Soviet rule, the mounds had to make way for farming land, and many sites were irreparably flattened. An estimated 100,000 such tumuli were erased forever, and the remaining ones are at risk from grave robbers. 

[The skeleton and gold jewelry of a Scythian noblewoman, dating to the 4th century BC, on display at the Museum of Historical Treasures in Kyiv, Ukraine 

[Credit: Brendan Hoffman/The New York Times]

Government archaeologists and developers obviously had opposite views about these mounds, and it seems that the Ukrainian people have little or no knowledge of their precious past history. The situation in neighboring Kazakhstan and southern Russia is not much different. 

Two years ago, a Ukrainian nongovernmental group came forward to preserve this Scythian heritage and founded a group called Guardians of the Mounds. They aim to protect as many of the remaining tumuli as possible from further destruction. Once the ground is flattened and the valuables inside have been removed, construction is allowed on top of them. Otherwise, they were left available for farming. 

The Guardians of the Mounds have their work cut out because the landscape is scattered with tumuli, which served as a burial ground for some noblemen and signaled that the area was home to many strong people. Of the nomadic warriors who occupied the land, the best known were the Scythians. They were buried with many of their prized possessions, like golden jewelry and dishes. Besides, they were accompanied by their wives and horses.

It seems that many museums in Kyiv display a rich collection of gold artifacts, which unfortunately have been pulled out of their context. Experts from the Museum of Historical Treasures in Kyiv believe that the Guardians should lobby the government on zoning laws, which apparently are nonexistent. The country’s construction plans appear to be unstoppable. Another danger may be that the mounds were still used for burials by the Communist Party and WWII heroes.

A typical example is the ongoing excavations at the site of Dnipro, which has been robbed repeatedly over the centuries. This tumulus goes back to a prehistoric Indo-Iranian culture but has been reused in the 4th century BC when another catacomb was built about five meters below the surface. Plundering the Scythian burial sites always was and still is a lucrative business. The most valuable artifacts are freely offered on online auction sites. 

Professional scholars should be allowed to study the past history of Ukraine, where registered archaeological monuments are already being destroyed and surrendered to private owners. Unfortunately, local authorities don’t intervene as they are eager to find precious grave goods and don’t pay attention to the historical and cultural value. 

Meanwhile, members of the Guardians of the Mounds have been rebuilding six tumuli in a field north of Kyiv that contains 18 graves in total. Their effort is praiseworthy, but it does not really replace the damage done. 

Tomb robbery is one of the all-time, but in our 21st century, we might expect a little more respect and appreciation for a country’s rich cultural history and heritage.

The complex site of Taxila

Until now, I pictured Taxila as one big city, as it is in modern times. What threw me off was that ancient sources talked about the three ancient cities of Bhir, Sirkap, as well as Sirsukh instead of Taxila. Meanwhile, modern archaeology has established that Taxila is composed of 18 separate sites of great cultural value. This demanded a closer and more in-depth study of the matter. 

From the 6^th century BC onward, the city of Taxila was known by the Persian Achaemenid kings, who turned it into an important hub on their Royal Road from Persepolis to Central Asia. For Alexander, Taxila was the first major city he encountered on this way into India. It was also the residence of King Taxiles, who came to meet him while he was still in Sogdiana. He had promised to join his forces to those of Alexander, but he died before they could meet. True to his father’s word, Omphis (also called Mophis or Ambhi) received Alexander in Taxila (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind). 

We will recall that Omphis had provided supplies to Hephaistion and the Macedonians as they were bridging the Indus River. When both kings met outside the city, Omphis handed his fifty-six elephants over to Alexander, together with an impressive herd of livestock, including 3,000 bulls dressed up for sacrifices. 

The site of Bhir is actually the place where this meeting took place in 326 BC since Omphis’ palace stood on top of a mound that carried that name. This same location was later occupied by Chandragupta Maurya (see: Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?) and his grandson, Asoka. As the latter introduced Buddhism in the Gandhara region, the first Buddhist monastery was erected at this very spot at some time in the 3^rd century BC. By the 2^nd century AD, this construction was replaced by the Dharmarajika Stupa, the remains of which are still visible. 

With Alexander, Greek knowledge and science reached Taxila. Here, philosophers and the like met and developed science, mathematics and astronomy. 

Sirkap emerged at a later date. After Alexander’s conquest, the eastern part of his empire was ruled by the Seleucid kings till about 250 BC. By then, power was taken over by the self-proclaimed King Diodotus I of Bactria, who laid the foundations of what became the Greco-Bactrian Empire. These Bactrian Greeks advanced into the Gandhara region and erected their well-planned city of Sirkap as part of Taxila. For the next five hundred years, Greek remained the lingua franca and the influence of Greek art and beliefs lived on (see: Unique Hellenistic heritage in Pakistan). 

This link is confirmed by the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana (15-100 AD), who described Taxila as being rich with Greek-type of constructions. This happened in the 1^st century AD, and it is generally accepted that he was talking about Sirkap.

As a result of the heavy traffic on the Silk Road that connected Central Asia to China, business flourished while the population mingled with the Scythians, the Parthians, and later the Kushans. Besides silk and other precious goods, Buddhism also spread steadily in the wake of Buddhist monks travelling to China, Korea, and Japan. It was under the Kushan emperors that a new form of art blossomed, blending classical Greek expression with local art forms. This became known as the Gandhara Art, which produced the most remarkable statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas (see: Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art). 

One of the oldest Stupas is the so-called Round Stupa from the 1^st century AD. The largest sanctuary is the Apsidal Temple, measuring 70x40 meters with a square nave and several rooms used by the Buddhist monks. It also presented a building in an apsidal shape – hence its name. It may have been decorated by a Greek artist, but the earthquake of 30 AD destroyed most of the building. 

Of particular interest is the Double-Headed Eagle Stupa, which displayed pilasters of Greek design with Corinthian columns. It has a strange combination of a Greek temple and a Hindu shrine. The ensemble is crowned with a double-headed eagle as originally found in Babylon. The theory is that the idea spread to Scythia and was introduced to the Punjab by the Saka rulers. 

The large Dharmarajika Stupa already mentioned in Bhir was situated not far from Sirkap. It was built with the sole purpose of housing relics of the Buddha and was surrounded by several monastic buildings. 

The most recent city is Sirsukh, which was founded by the Kushans after 80 AD. King Kanishka had decided to abandon Sirkap and to build his own new city in a typical Central Asian style. The city was surrounded by a strong fortification wall that was almost five kilometers long and more than six meters thick. Its particularity was that the face of these walls was covered with diaper or diamond-shaped masonry. Until now, the city proper could not be investigated properly because today it is buried deep underneath the low, richly irrigated land. Sirsukh was completely destroyed by the Huns, who invaded the Punjab around 500 AD.

The mystery about Alexander’s Wall

What is known as Alexander’s Wall is a section of the Elburz Mountains located about five kilometers east of the Caspian Sea. From what Michael Wood showed us is his documentary In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great, it looked like a straight dike in the landscape. 

Although Alexander may have passed the Caspian Gates, the obvious opening in this wall during his pursuit of Bessus in 329 BC, there is no indication why this wall was named after him. He most probably had nothing to do with its construction, even if he is known for having built comparable defenses in Margiana. 

From the geographical and historical point of view, this wall separates the arid lands in the north where the Scythians used to live from the fertile lands to the south, which were overall in Persian hands. 

Recently, archaeologists established that at least a part of the wall can be dated back to the Achaemenid Empire (6^th-4^th century BC). Later research revealed baked bricks, which were carbon dated to 47-570 AD. This may well fit the theory that the construction of this wall took place under Khusrau I who ruled from 531 to 579 AD. This Sassanid King is known for having defended Hyrcania against the Huns of Central Asia. 

Research in the area is very difficult because over the centuries much of the stones and bricks have been removed to serve as construction material elsewhere. 

The link to Alexander, however, has been kept alive mainly through the Quran. Here it is said that Dhûl-Qarnayn (The Horned One) erected a large wall to keep out the Barbarians, which the Quran calls Gog and Magog. As we know, The Horned One is a name attributed to Alexander as son of the Egyptian god Ammon depicted with ram’s horns. 

If we follow what the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote in the 1^st century AD, the Scythians crossed the passage in the wall which was used previously by Alexander, and shut the opening with iron gates. Also the Syrian Christians mention the story of Dhûl-Qarnayn shortly before it appeared in the Quran. It is reportedly based on a letter which Alexander wrote to his mother. This is not unlike what is mentioned in the Alexander Romance back in the original version from Alexandria of the 4^th century AD. This means that the story, true or false, existed already before it was included into the Quran.

However, history and legend once more go hand in hand when talking about this Alexander Wall because two more sites have been identified by that name. They are situated on the western side of the Caspian Sea as they blocked the passage across the Caucasus Mountains. The most favorite version is the one mentioned by Marco Polo as the Caspian Gates of Derbent. This wall stretches over a distance of 40 kilometers and is marked by 30 fortification towers. True or not, it is up to us to make up our own mind! 

A cast helmet from Central Asia

As a rule, helmets are created using a sheet of metal hammered into the proper shape over a mold. As always, there are exceptions to the rule. And this helmet, which is exhibited in the National Museum of Uzbek History in Tashkent, is one of them.

[Picture from Mainzer Beobachter]

The descriptive label stated that the helmet was found near Maracanda, in the tomb of a Sacae leader. The Sacae lived in the steppes of Central Asia better known by their Greek generic name as Scythians and Sogdians. Livius has composed a thorough overview of these steppe people under the title Scythians/Sacae that provides many interesting details. By the way, it is Livius (Jona Lendering) who brought my attention to this helmet through his blog  Mainzer Beobachter.

In the book The Scythians by Barry Cunliffes, he discovers that this type of cast helmet is inspired by a technique that was customary in China. This example dates from the 6th century BC but became obsolete afterwards.

The story of this cast helmet reminds me of the Achaemenid silver bowl with hollow drop motives from the 3rd-2nd century BC that was found in China in recent years. It made headlines because it had been cast and not hammered as expected, meaning that this piece was really made in China and not imported from the West (see: Alexander's influence reached all the way to China?)

Dr Lukas Nickel from the University of Vienna, Asian Art History (previously from SOAS, University of London), had discovered that besides these bowls and the Nanyue silver box, there were about ten more of such unusual treasure boxes. They were found in different locations throughout China.

This is Hellenism with a twist, isn't it?

So far, we have a handful of artifacts with a Western design. As China has become very active in archaeology over the past decennia, the future looks very promising. Still so much remains unexplored in Central Asia and in the countries on the Silk Road.

Horses buried upright in Thracian tomb

Thracian horses were famous throughout antiquity, and Homer, who probably lived in the 8^th century BC, already mentions that Rhesos, the mythical king of Thrace possessed massive horses, “whiter than snow”. That must have been quite a sight for sore eyes!

Tragedians like Sophocles and Euripides label the Thracians as loving their horses, while Hesiod refers to the horse-breeding qualities of the Thracians. It is not surprising to find the horse portrayed on their coins and on those of the Greek colonies in Thrace.

Alexander and his father, before him, were well aware of this high-quality breed. We will remember the incident when, in 339 BC, Philip returned home after capturing the Athenian corn ships. On his way, he thought it would be a good idea to secure his eastern front and subdue the ruling Scythians. Besides the slaves, he got hold of some twenty thousand thoroughbred horses. But his success did not last long as the Triballi, an independent Thracian tribe, attacked and stole the precious horses from the king before he could reach Macedonia. (see: Philip’s campaigns east (342 BC) and the Fourth Sacred War (339 BC)).

It is therefore not surprising to find horses buried next to their wealthy owners and leaders (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece) or depicted on the walls of their burial chamber (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings, Bulgaria).

Today, wild horses still roam in Thrace, which now extends over most of Bulgaria, as well as the eastern corner of Greece and the western part of Turkey.

Recent excavations in Svestari in north-east Bulgaria have exposed the remains of a Thracian carriage pulled by two horses that apparently were buried standing upright. Scholars believe that the chariot was led over a ramp into the pit. The horses wore their festive trimmings and elaborate harnesses.

[Picture from Sofia News Agency]

A couple of years ago, a similar chariot was found, complete with a seat, together with two horses in the village of Borissvovo, dating from the Roman era. In this case, the chariot was supported by stones to keep it in position, giving the archaeologists a unique opportunity to study how the vehicle was put together.

After Tillya Tepe, a gold treasure from Eastern Kazakhstan

The remote Tarbagatai Mountains in eastern Kazakhstan have kept their secret for 2,800 years, hiding a stash of “royal gold” and other precious items inside a burial mound.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network (Credit: Oleg Belyalov-east2west news])

Some of these artifacts show close resemblance to the treasures recovered from Tillya Tepe in nearby Afghanistan which travelled around the world since the destruction of the Kabul Museum (see: Bactrian Gold, the Hidden Treasures from the Museum of Kabul).

This time, however, the treasure trove seems to belong to the Saka people – a branch of the Scythians - who lived in Central Asia around the 8^th century BC. The highly skilled gold beads meant to be sewn on clothes as well as gold plates with rivets, chains, earrings and a necklace inlaid with precious stones testify of exceptional craftsmanship. Because of the finesse of the 3,000 golden artifacts, the find is believed to belong to royalty or some prestigious people, probably a couple.

The tumulus site was not found entirely unlooted and it seems that even in the days of Peter the Great part of the treasure has been removed. Excavations started two years ago but the grave of the wealthy man and woman has not yet been opened. Let’s hope no illegal treasure hunters will destroy this tomb so that professional archaeologists can complete the meticulous job they started.

The area on the Eleke Sazy Plateau counts some 200 tumuli most of which were robbed over the centuries. Gold always had and still has a magic attraction.

The Kingdom of the Bosporus

The Kingdom of the Bosporus comprised the lands between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea, more precisely the Taman Peninsula and the Kerch Peninsula on either side of the Cimmerian Bosporus.

[Picture from Wikipedia Public Domain]

As developed in an earlier blog about the Greek colonization of the Black Sea (see: The many colonies of Miletus), the Ionian city of Miletus created new colonies especially over the period from 580 to 560 BC. Here, the foundations were laid for the Kingdom of the Bosporus which lasted for almost a thousand years. Over the centuries it became a melting pot of civilizations as the Greeks mingled with neighboring Scythians and Sarmatians. This kingdom whose capital was Panticapaeum, reached its peak between the 6^th and the 3^rd century BC when the new colonists maintained strong cultural and trade relations.

This part of the world, which – let’s not forget - cannot have been unknown to Alexander, is subject at present to successive excavations triggered by the Russians who are constructing a highway leading to the Kerch Bridge over the Strait of the same name in order to link Russia with the Crimea.

The area turns out to be rich in archaeological finds. One of them is a Roman villa from the middle of the 1^st century AD considered to be a true example of daily life. It has yielded a number of household items, various tools, cheap jewelry, and small terracotta figurines which are identified as toys and have been baptized Hellenistic Barbie dolls. At that time, the economy was booming in the kingdom of the Bosporus which included not only eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula but also the downstream areas of the Don River. The archaeologists have concluded that the area was occupied by a slightly well-off middle class but by no means large Roman landowners.

Another project is the Greek necropolis in the Taman Peninsula counting some 600 burial mounds. They belong to several Greek colonies that lived in the wider area from the end of the 7^th century BC until the middle of the 4^th century BC. A Corinthian bronze helmet has been unearthed in a grave from the 5^th century BC. This is a spectacular discovery considering that these helmets appeared in Greece only a century before and were widely used by the Greek hoplites. It was also the stereotype model that was applied when representing Athena or Pericles, for instance.

In a burial mound in Crimea, on the other hand, Russian archaeologists discovered a partly disintegrated wooden sarcophagus from the second half of the 4^th century BC holding the skeleton of a teenager. Among the grave goods, they found many sport-related gifts like ten alabastrons, a strigil, 150 knucklebones and a red-figure wine jar belonging to the so-called Kerch style.

It will be interesting to follow the excavations around the Black Sea for they certainly will reveal many more treasures.

[Thessaloniki Byzantine Agora, Agia Sophia Station [Credit: Greek Ministry of Culture]

As until recently archaeological discoveries depended purely on coincidences and good luck, the modern road and metro works carried out in cities like Athens, Rome, Thessaloniki, Sofia (ancient Serdica), Plovdiv (ancient Philippopolis), and many others, are yielding knowledge and information otherwise inaccessible. As always, excavations are a matter of politics and money – sadly.

[Picture Hellenistic Barbie Doll from Archaeology News Network]
[Picture Corinthian Helmet from Archaeology News Network]