The wondrous Nymphaeum of Kibyra

Slowly but surely, Kibyra is rising from its ashes as excavation and reconstruction works steadily expose more of its precious monuments. After the unique Bouleuterion/Odeon with its Medusa mosaic floor, the great Stadium that could seat 10,000 people, and the impressive theater that offers a wide view over the landscape, the round Nymphaeum is another magnificent structure (see: The tempting site of Kibyra). 

The Nymphaeum was built at a time when the city of Kibyra was reconstructed in three distinctive steps following the earthquake of 23 AD. The border of the circular central pool was decorated with reliefs. On its edge rested six columns alternating with sculptures supporting a conical roof that collapsed in the earthquake of 417 AD. In the last quarter of the 2^nd century AD, a second surrounding pool was arranged around the existing one. It has been determined that twelve bronze statues were added as testified by the imprints of the feet on the supporting pedestals. 

The Nymphaeum was 7.5 meters high and had a diameter of 15 meters. Notwithstanding repeated modifications and additions, the fountain was used well into the 7^th century AD. 

Presently, the Nymphaeum is restored to its former glory and the water supply has returned from the original ancient source. Water flows into the central pool from the stone figures stretched between the columns, two of which have been attributed to Herakles and Dionysus. The originals have been moved to the Museum of Burdur and replaced with limestone copies. 

It must be a sight for sore eyes as the water brings the city back to life, just like in the Antonine Nymphaeum of Sagalassos (see: Sagalassos in Alexander’s campaign).

[Pictures from TRT Haber]

The bronzes from Bubon’s Sebasteion

Illegal digs are inevitable and Turkey with its countless antique sites is no exception. A beautiful bronze head of an unknown young man displayed at the Getty Villa has recently been identified as stolen or illegally excavated, and it is heartwarming to hear that it will be returned to Turkey. 

The Getty Museum in Malibu, California, acquired the head in 1971 and it could be established that it belonged to a now-lost life-size figure. It is marked with the letter alpha (the Greek A) at the bottom of the neck. The inlaid eyes, which always add so much character to a face, are missing. 

Dated to the period between 100 BC and 100 AD, the statue's provenance was not documented, although scholars now link it to the archaeological site of Bubon in ancient Lycia. Since the late 1960s, several bronzes have been smuggled out of Turkey from that area. Most depicted Roman emperors and their families but the head at Getty has yet to be identified. 

In October 2023, the New York Times published an article on these bronzes from illegal digs that have been scattered around the world to various private homes and museums. 

By 1967 the looting became apparent and slowly stopped as the Turkish police found a headless bronze torso hidden in the woods near Bubon. This site turned out to be the main source for this unique collection and authorities are determined to track the looters down. 

Bubon has not been systematically excavated and all that remains are a small theater and stadium, as well as an Acropolis. The main building may have been a shrine or Sebasteion, where several bronze statues stood around a U-shaped courtyard that was probably roofed. The Sebasteion may have been started by Nero and his wife Poppea Sabina. His example was followed by eleven emperors and three empresses, the last being Gallienus, who ruled till 268 AD. In the following decades, Bubon suffered from repeated earthquakes which buried and saved the Sebasteion. 

Scholars and experts aim to restitute the group of statues, which represented an important binding factor between the citizens to the power of faraway Rome. 

In the end, the villagers themselves, now in their 60s and 70s, provided the most precious information. They described the statues and their posture and remembered how they were sold. Their plinths with the names of the emperors in Greek are still in situ. 

Lucius Verus apparently stood next to Marcus Aurelius, his adoptive brother and co-ruler. His headless statue may be at The Cleveland Museum of Art and his Bubon origin is now under investigation. 

Septimius Severus was accompanied by his wife and sons, Caracalla and Geta. His headless statue was on loan at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and has been turned over to the authorities for repatriation. Some experts believe the missing head is kept at the Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, Denmark. The head of Caracalla has been seized from the Met and his torso is probably in the hands of a Greek collector. Emperor Valerian stood nearby and his torso is now exhibited at the Museum of Burdur, Turkey. Commodus also had a plinth of his own.

In due time, more emperors will be reconciled with their names on the pedestals and more effigies or body parts will be returned to their rightful spot in Turkey. 

[Top picture from Getty Museum. Lucius Verus is mine taken at the MANN]

Revelations from Kibyra in Turkey

It appears that I left my disclosure of Kibyra with the news that the site would open to the public in 2017 (see: The tempting site of Kibyra).

Last year's excavations yielded two important artifacts: an Asclepius statue and a Zeus-Serapis bust.

The 38-centimeter-high statuette of the Greek god of Health, Asclepius, was uncovered inside the so-called Caesarian, the Cult Temple of the Emperor. Kibyra was famous for its knowledge of medicine; thus, this discovery didn't come as a surprise. The figurine has been dated to the 2^nd century AD and was found in a layer of soil that showed traces of fire. It was broken into six pieces but could be restored and pieced back together.

[Picture from The Greek City Times]

The other object unearthed this time in the Roman Baths was the head of a bearded man. To the greatest joy of the archaeologists, the head fitted a bust made of Afyon marble discovered in these baths in 2019. The bust represents Serapis, an Egyptian god who was worshiped in combination with Zeus at the time. Zeus-Serapis was the god of the Underworld and Fertility, the main god of Alexandria.

Both artifacts have been moved to the Archaeological Museum of Burdur, where they will be exhibited very soon. 

Kibyra sat at the crossroads of important trade routes connected to Caria, Phrygia, and Pisidia. It was famous for its metallurgy, and as a result, the city minted its own coins from the mid-first century BC until the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Today's buildings are mainly constructions from Roman times and, more precisely, from after 23 AD, i.e. when the city was destroyed by a major earthquake. It was Emperor Tiberius who financed its reconstruction and renamed it Caesarea Kibyra.

About the Olympian gods

Walking through the history of Greece, we cannot escape the ever presence of the gods – in this case, the Olympian gods. Besides the written history, they all came to us in many shapes and forms, such as statues, reliefs, mosaics, and even paintings, which are widely lost. Some of those earthly creations are true masterpieces, which I'd like to share at present.

The Greek pantheon counted twelve gods: Zeus, Hera, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Poseidon, Ares, Demeter, Aphrodite, Dionysos, Hermes, and Hephaistos. This number, however, was flexible, and at times one of the lesser gods was replaced by another one.

We will remember how King Philip, Alexander's father, proclaimed himself the 13th god when he made his triumphal entry into the Theater of Aegae, where he was murdered that same day.

The Greek gods were very human and constituted one big family.

Zeus was the father of the gods, and as such, he ruled over heaven and earth. He was the god of thunder, so he is generally depicted holding a thunderbolt in his hand. The most magnificent rendition, in my opinion, is the bronze Zeus from the Sea of Artemisia, c. 450 BC, that dominates the room at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

Hera was Zeus' wife and Queen of Mount Olympus. She was the goddess of marriage and the family. Although she was a very jealous spouse, she remained faithful to Zeus despite his many escapades. Her temple in Olympia left us with many unusual artifacts, among which there is this (restored) terracotta Acroterium, which is now displayed in the local museum.

Athena was born from the head of Zeus and was the goddess of war and wisdom. Her name is closely tied to Athens after she donated the olive tree to symbolize peace and plenty. A sacred olive tree stood on the Acropolis, where a more recent specimen had replaced its ancestor. In her honor, the famous Temple of the Parthenon was built in the 5^th century BC. The New Museum of the Acropolis exhibits a relatively uncommon marble statue of a striding Athena that was part of the pediment of the archaic temple from c. 520 BC.

Apollo is the most loved of the gods and is generally associated with music. He also stands for youth, beauty, and the source of life and healing. Delphi was one of his favorite places of worship. Still, I was very impressed by the larger-than-life statue of Apollo playing the Lyre exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli in Libya. It was retrieved from the Bath of Hadrian in Leptis Magna, Libya.

Artemis was the twin sister of Apollo, and often her temple stood right next to her brother's – as we know from Didyma and Letoon (Turkey), for instance. She was best known as the protector of women in childbirth, although she was also famous as the goddess of hunting. We'll remember that Artemis was so occupied in assisting the birth of Alexander that she neglected her tasks in Ephesos and let her temple burn down that same night. She is represented in the archaic eastern form with many breasts in this city, but that is not my favorite picture. There is, of course, the nearly intact Diana, the Roman version, at the Louvre in Paris, but I'd prefer this cute little hairnet from the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Poseidon, the later Roman Neptune, is best known as the god of the sea. He was famous for bringing floods and storms, but was also responsible for earthquakes. Yet, he had a good side also, since he protected the seafarers. My favorite is this relief from the 1^st or 2^nd century AD on display at the Museum of Burdur (famous for the artifacts retrieved in Sagalassos) in Turkey.

Ares was the son of Zeus and Hera and a very bellicose god with a quick temper. His beauty and courage made him the perfect seducer of women, the most famous of whom was Aphrodite. This scene is beautifully depicted in a fresco from the House of Lucretius Fronto in Pompeii, exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy.   

Demeter was Zeus' sister and the mother of Persephone, who was raped by the god of the underworld, Hades. She was one of the oldest gods in the Greek pantheon, and as such, she provided the earth's fertility and protected the harvest. The votive relief from Eleusis is probably the most famous picture, but I have a special connection with this remarkable relief tucked away in the Museum of Dion in Greece.

Aphrodite was born on the island of Cyprus near the city of Paphos, where her memory is still alive. According to some sources, she is said to be the daughter of Zeus. Aphrodite, who later became the Roman Venus, is widely known as the goddess of love, beauty, and sex. She not only protected the courtesans and prostitutes but also the seafarers. Quite uniquely, she was a favorite among men and women alike and played an essential role in commerce, politics, and warfare. There are many statues of Aphrodite and Venus to entice us. After in-depth comparisons, however, I chose this one from the Louvre in Paris.

Dionysos was another son of Zeus, but from his liaison with Semele. Hera was very jealous of that relationship and killed Semele. However, Zeus took the unborn child and reared him in his thigh. Dionysus turned out to be the bad boy of Olympus and is best known as the god of wine – always playful and good-natured. He is often represented in the presence of a Satyr, and the example from Sagalassos exhibited at the Museum of Burdur is one of the finest Hellenistic statues.

Hermes. In the crowded family on Mount Olympus, Hermes was another son of Zeus, but this time by the nymph Maia. He is often seen in the company of Pan, his son, and is the patron of the shepherds. He was engaged in many fields and was the god of commerce and thieves, clearly illustrating his colorful personage. He was also active as the god of travel, wealth, luck, and language. His later Roman name, Mercury, highlights his versatility. The most perfect rendition is the splendid Hermes with the child Dionysus, which Praxiteles created for the Temple of Hera in Olympia.

Hephaistos was the brilliant blacksmith on Mount Olympus. He was the god of fire and metallurgy. Since he was born to Hera without a father, he appeared as an ugly figure – the only one among the overall near-perfect gods and goddesses. That may be why I didn't find (or photograph) a statue of Hephaistos, who has left us his well-preserved temple in Athens.

What did the citizens of ancient Sagalassos look like?

Talking about Sagalassos or any city from antiquity, it merely comes down to buildings and stones. So, it is gratifying to find archaeologists trying to give the people who lived so many centuries ago a face.

We owe it to the Belgian researchers Jeroen Poblome (director of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project) and Sam Cleymans (postdoctoral researcher), who – together with the University of Burdur in Turkey – managed to reconstruct two human faces from that remote past.

[Credit: Bruno Vandermeulen & Danny Veys/Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project]

To that purpose, they used a female skeleton that was retrieved from a graveyard in 1995 and dated to the Middle-Byzantine era (11^th-13^th century AD), which they called Eirènè, as well as the remains of a Roman man who lived early 3^rd century AD, found in 2016, and which they baptized Rhodon. Both skeletons were in a good state of conservation and were almost complete. Of course, their real names are unknown, but putting a name on a face makes them indeed come alive.

Rhodon is estimated to be older than fifty and must have belonged to the middle class. He was interred with beautiful gifts, among which they found an epistomion (a golden leaf covering the mouth of the deceased) that carried the picture of a bee and a gilded bronze ring. It has been established that Rhodon led a hard life full of physical labor in this challenging landscape surrounding Sagalassos, even today.

Eirènè has been estimated to have been between 30 and 50 years old at the time of her death, and her burial was more sober, following the traditions of her time.

As usual with facial reconstructions, the research team started making a 3D scan of the skulls, and layer by layer, the face was created, calculating the shape of the nose, the ears, and the eyes. To determine the color of the eyes and the hair, they observed today’s people of nearby Ağlasun, who have relatively light skin but brown eyes and hair.

Since Rhodon lived in the 2^nd century AD, they sought inspiration from the portraits of Emperor Hadrian and gave him short hair and a carefully trimmed beard. The appearance of Eirènè is more austere, as was customary in Byzantine times, and, as a result, she had loose hair with a thin braid.

This is a very rewarding tentative to give us a look into the past. One thing is sure, these are people we could easily encounter today!

Sagalassos in Alexander’s campaign

Amazingly, the story of Sagalassos so far has remained untold on my weblog, despite the details shared in the great exhibition held in Tongeren, Belgium, not so long ago (Sagalassos, City of Dreams). So, it is high time to tell more about this magnificent city since Alexander the Great conquered it in 333 BC. 

Nowadays, a narrow road leads from the village of Ağlasun to the top of the hill where Sagalassos lies hidden from view. This immense city in the otherwise broken landscape amidst snow-capped mountains is revealed only after passing the watchman's gate. An actual eagle's nest!

Since 1990, archaeologists have constantly been working at Sagalassos, year after year, season after season, exposing new buildings each time. It is easy for a layman to see the city rise from its ashes, so to speak. The wonderful thing about Sagalassos is that so many edifices can easily be re-erected, as, in most cases, at least 90% of the original elements are scattered around! This means that the visitor will always find a surprise each time anew. It is estimated that Sagalassos covers some 1,200 square kilometers and could be compared to Pompeii in Italy, which was frozen in time after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Over here, we find a city that was constantly occupied until the 13th century AD.

Overlooking the area from this strategic location, my admiration for Alexander the Great is growing again – as if that were still possible.

Just before the onset of winter in 334 BC, Alexander split his army into three groups. Under the command of his general Parmenion, part of his troops proceeded to Gordion. The newlyweds were allowed to return home to Macedonia to spend the winter with their families. The entire army was meant to regroup the following spring in Gordion. This meant that Alexander moved through Lycia with a smaller detachment of soldiers, approximately 14,000 men, fighting east through Pamphylia, where important cities like Side, Perge, Aspendos, and Termessos had to be taken to safeguard his rear. When he started his march north in the early days of spring, Sagalassos was evidently on his path, and I find it hard to picture his army moving uphill from around where today's Ağlasun was settled by the Seljuks. I have no mental picture of how big an army of  14,000 may look like – not to mention the number of horses –but this must have been impressive enough. I suppose the baggage train, servants, slaves, craftsmen, and merchants would have stayed in the valley below...

In the 14th century BC, the Hittites knew of Sagalassos, which they called Salawassa. Like all other cities around here, Sagalassos was dominated in turn by the Phrygians and the Lydians until the Persians took hold of it to include it in the province of Pisidia. The Sagalassians were bellicose people with no reason to welcome Alexander with open arms. Any rule change is understandably met with resentment, and their opinion about Alexander will be similar to what they thought about previous conquerors. Anyway, the city was taken, although occupying the high ground in front of the town, they also fought fiercely due to Sagalassos' reinforcements from Termessos. In advance of his right wing led by Alexander himself, the archers were the first to get the beating when they reached the steepest part of the climb to the city, but the Agrianes on the left held their ground. The Pisidians, who, according to Arrian, have no defensive armor, were no match for the fully-equipped infantry attackers (horses were useless in this terrain). About 500 citizens were killed, the surviving defenders fled, and Alexander stormed Sagalassos. After Alexander's death, the region was disputed by Antigonus Monophtalmus, Lysimachos, the Seleucids, and finally, the Attalids of Pergamon. Sagalassos shared the fate of its neighbors when it became part of the Roman Provincia Asia after the death of Attalus III in 133 BC. By then, the city was Hellenistic, and the vehicular language was Greek. 

Named the Metropolis of Pisidia, Sagalassos was a reliable supplier of grain and olives. The local clay ensured the prosperous commerce of pottery like amphorae, jars, and cups for export to the entire Mediterranean region. For six hundred years, the production of ceramics was carried out on an industrial scale. Under Emperor Hadrian, the city underwent significant building activities, many of which we still see today. It is estimated that in its heyday, Sagalassos counted some 50,000 inhabitants! The decline started after repeated earthquakes like that of 518 AD, but mainly those of 644 and 661, while the plague and the Arabian invasion gave the "coup de grace." In the 11th century, it fell into the hands of the Turkmen as it was situated on the caravan route between Antalya and Konya. The Seljuks in the 13th century built the nearby town of Ağlasun with a caravansary and a hammam of its own, and Sagalassos slid into oblivion. We had to wait till 1706 when a traveling Frenchman rediscovered the city, but it was not until 1985 that a Belgo-British team put Sagalassos on the map again, and excavations started for good.

My first visit in 2005 was unsuccessful, for I was with a group led by an uncooperative guide. I returned in 2007 under the far more professional guidance of Peter Sommer in the frame of his superb trip "In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great." And because of the ongoing excavations, I returned in 2009, far too long ago, when I saw the most recent pictures. My latest update of 2009 may tell of monuments now in improved condition, although they are, as a matter of course, still in the exact location anyway. 

The first building I encountered on my last visit (and I presume that is still the case today) is the vast complex of the Roman Baths built between 168 and 180 AD, which, together with those of Ephesos, belongs to the largest in Turkey. These baths were repaired and adjusted after the earthquake of 518, i.e., in the middle of the Christian period. From what I understood in Tongeren, archaeologists have traced the many additions and transformations, and the Baths may open to the public very soon.

The Lower Agora, meanwhile, has been restored in all its grandeur, with monolithic marble columns of different colors enhancing the façade of the Nymphaeum, where statues once filled the many niches. Some statues can be seen at the Museum of Burdur, but this must have been quite a sight! This was the first monumental Nymphaeum built under the reign of Trajan in the second century AD and was the first of its kind to meet the traveler entering Sagalassos from the south over the Colonnaded Street. About a century later, its façade was partly dismantled to be re-erected some 40 cm forward, creating a narrow service room behind the basin. The entire width of this fountain is 19 meters with a depth of approximately 3 meters, delimited by a meter-high limestone parapet. Among the statues that filled the nine niches, Hera and Tyche have been identified, and also two small statues of Nike.

The slabs of the marble Agora floor are still in place, as well as the staircase leading to the square below, which connected to the Colonnaded Street that linked up with the Via Sebasté down in the valley. What a panorama from here! It is at least as impressive as my first meeting with Delphi in Greece – one of those places that only the gods can choose.

Behind this Agora, half of the Odeon has been exposed. It doesn't look as if it survived the centuries too well, for it has been stripped of its marble coat, and all I see is the rough brick support. The shape and the method of construction are clearly visible, however.

Via a narrow street and a left turn, I reach the Bouleuterion, a square meeting room counting 250 seats. Three bronze statues representing the people, the city, and the senate at the entrance must have welcomed the attendees.

Next to it lies the Heroon from the early days of the first century AD, delicately restored with its magnificent friezes of dancing and music-playing girls. Although these friezes are mere copies (the originals were also moved to the Museum of Burdur), they give an excellent idea of how they once looked. The hero in whose honor this Heroon was erected remains unknown, although some pretend it might be Alexander the Great. This may be wishful thinking, for although the hero's head, now on display at the Burdur Museum, closely resembles Alexander, I am a little skeptical.

At the foot of this Heroon lies the Upper Agora, dating from the Hellenistic period and enlarged in the first century. The great attraction is the ostentatious fountain, the Antonine Nymphaeum from 160-180 AD, that looks like a theater front with six niches that held statues from the late fourth or early fifth century AD representing Asklepios, Koronis, Nemesis, Apollo, possibly Hygeia, and an unidentified male. Each corner hosted a beautiful, larger-than-life Dionysus with Satyr, now also in Burdur (with the other statues). In-depth research has revealed that the fountain was repaired in the 4th century and that the statues came from the Temple of Apollo Klarios in the lower part of the city. Each corner of the Upper Agora is enhanced with a 13-meter-high honorific column for the city's most prominent families, whose children later would become the first Roman citizens of Sagalassos. After the earthquake of 650 AD, the entire Nymphaeum collapsed and was never restored. I hear that today the monumental fountain has been so meticulously repaired that the water is again pouring into the broad water basin. That is a "must-see" for my next visit.

Public buildings surround the Upper Agora, where I find Greek and Latin inscriptions. In the middle of the Agora are the remains of a kiosk, initially a small temple dedicated to Tyche with a pyramidal roof and built in the days of Emperor Augustus. It was later reused by Empress Constantia (4th century AD), followed by Emperors Gratianus and Valentianus, and again by Empress Flavia Eudoxia (5th century AD).

Below and southeast of this Agora lies the food market or Macellum from the end of the 2nd century AD. It is a mere square of 21x21 meters with, in its center, a Tholos with a small fountain or water basin to keep the fish fresh. Shops surrounded the Macellum only on three sides, the fourth side being delimited by a colonnade offering a magnificent view over the lower city. Things were spoiled around the beginning of the sixth century when the shops were entirely rebuilt with rubble and lots of spolia from other monuments.

What a pleasure to walk around, especially since I am about the only visitor – so gratifying!

After a look at the necropolis, which is largely fenced off, I turn to the eastern side of Sagalassos. Here lies the exciting and now roofed Library of Flavius Soverianus Neon from 120 AD with its well-preserved mosaic floor. It was inspired by the Library of Celsus in Ephesos, although I personally fail to see how. For a start, this construction is much smaller, measuring only 11,80 x 9.90 meters, and the impressive façade of Ephesos is entirely absent here.

Right beneath the Library is another fountain, a Nymphaeum with Doric columns supporting the preserved roof above the water basin – a rare example of Hellenistic art from the first century BC. This Nymphaeum was the first to be excavated, and to everybody's surprise, as soon as it was exposed, the water started flowing again! Isn't that amazing? The flow is less than it used to be in antiquity simply because the water comes from one source, whereas there were several in antiquity. The fountain's edge is deeply eroded by the many jars pulled out of the freshwater, and the presence of those women drawing water is almost palpable.

The inevitable Roman Theater, completed between 180 and 210 AD, is cozily nestled in a curve higher up the hill. However, it was built in Hellenistic tradition on a Greek foundation with seating in three-quarters of a circle. No excavations have been carried out yet, and the stage seems ready to collapse any day for the past two thousand years. The fault line of the devastating earthquake of 661 AD actually ran right in front of the podium, clearly separating it from the 9,000 seats. Strangely enough, the stage of this theater was only one story high. The reason seems to be that the Sagalassians wanted to see the flat-topped conical hill in the background, where Alexander defeated them in 333 BC – a later honor to the great conqueror!

On the high plateau behind it, the city's unique potters' quarters have left thousands and thousands of shards, ranging from plain earthenware to exquisitely decorated pieces. This place is so unique because of the five known potters' centers spread around the Mediterranean Sea. Only two have been localized: this one and another one in Pergamon, which is entirely flooded after the construction of a barrage. Unforgivable to flood antiquities like that, but it seems to be Turkey's policy, as we have seen at Zeugma and Allianoi …

At the heart of the exhibition in Tongeren, Belgium, a scale model of Sagalassos was presented. It is incredible to discover how many temples, baths, nymphaeums, and private houses have been mapped out over the past decades.

The latest excavations focused on several Roman villas, which I have yet to see but look very promising. There is this vast mansion just beyond the Roman Baths, which, when it was completed in the fourth century, counted no less than 66 rooms spread over several terraces on the slope. The oldest part dates from the 1st century BC and over the years, the villa has been extended and restored many times. By the 6th century, it was split into at least four smaller apartments in which the luxurious quarters were transformed into storage rooms and even stables! So far, we know that the construction collapsed during the heavy earthquakes of the 7th century and was no longer occupied. There are many more mansions like this one in the area, i.e., east of the Colonnaded Street, but also on the opposite side, which is much more terraced. Yes, high time to pay Sagalassos another visit.

The cherry on the cake is a visit to the nearby Museum of Burdur to treat yourself to the original dancing girls from the Heroon and the grand statues of extreme beauty from the Upper and Lower Agora fountains.

Perge welcomed Alexander with open arms

When Alexander the Great arrived in Perge in 333 BC, he was received with open arms, basically because the city wanted to be in his favor and counted on his support in settling their differences with Aspendos and Side. I'm not sure whether the plan was successful, but the fact remains that Alexander used Perge as his base from where he organized his campaigns to the neighboring cities. Then, as now, daily life must have been easygoing.

What we see today appears nearly exclusively Roman, i.e., from the 2nd century AD. Perge lies only two kilometers from the coastal main road connecting Antalya to Alanya. Immediately at the turn-off, one is confronted with the back wall of the large theater, while on the right-hand side, one sees the many vaults belonging to the 235-meter-long Stadium. An impressive welcome, to say the least. The road runs around this Stadium to the parking lot, which is free of charge. I feel at home right away.

This Stadium is known as being the best preserved in Asia Minor and is definitely worth a visit. It is built in the typical U-shape and, like the opposite theater, can seat as many as 15,000 spectators. In the underground vaults that supported the rows of seats, the shops offered everything the theater and Stadium aficionados needed or wanted. A picture that looks very modern, I would say.

I deeply regret that the Theater is not open to visitors as the construction is very unstable. I climb as far as I can through the thickets along the high fence, hoping to find a spot offering a worthwhile view of the inside. But my efforts are not rewarded, and I soon am being closely watched by a guard, afraid that I might force an entry through the fence. He is right, of course, for the temptation is there. The theater is clearly Greek and at a later date, the outer face of the stage building was converted into a Nymphaeum, 40 feet high. This façade counted five large water basins serving as public fountains. Meanwhile, the many statues from this incredible theater have been moved to the Archaeological Museum of Antalya, but it would be wonderful to mentally put them back into their original spots, wouldn't it?  

In Alexander’s days, the city was not walled, and it was his successors who built the first city wall in the 3rd century BC. Later on, with the expansion of Perge, the Romans tore down part of this wall and added a wider one of their own. That is the reason why today we enter antique Perge through two consecutive city gates, first the dull square Roman gate and right behind it the two round Hellenistic towers. These towers are very special simply because they look exactly like Macedonian siege towers, inside of which spiral-shaped stairs run to the top. They were being restored at the time of my visit, but according to the latest news, the work has now ended (I hope the visitor will be allowed inside also?). I find this corner of Perge extremely exciting as I discover the horseshoe-shaped space behind these towers once showing off the statues of the founders of the city, including that of Plancia Magna who held the highest civic office of demiurges and was also priestess of Artemis and of the Mother of Gods (now in the Antalya Museum); only the base with the founders' names remain in situ.

This space leads automatically to the more than one-kilometre-long main street. As far as I’m concerned, this is the only one that has a water channel running in the middle, very much like what we still may encounter in Turkey today (Antalya, Finike, or Burdur, for instance). The water comes from a lovely Nymphaeum situated at the far end of the street and beyond that channeled down from a cistern higher up the hill. The water spout is a mere slit at the feet of a reclining goddess and the water flows through the center of the city, over low intermediate walls that control the water flow and re-oxygenate it. The so-created mini waterfalls constitute a refreshing element on hot summer days. In some places, small pedestrian bridges run across the channel, sometimes decorated with a little sanctuary. 

Behind the Nymphaeum, a trail runs to the top of the hill where the Acropolis was located. From here, the view is like that of a bird, and the full layout of the city can be discerned.

Standing here, I realize how little has been excavated while walking through Perge’s streets, suggesting the opposite. I see the main road and the city gates, the Roman Baths near the entrance, and the Agora with surrounding buildings, and that  about sums it up. The Stadium lies outside the walls, with the famous theater across. The city wall, on the other hand, clearly cuts through the lush green trees and shrubs where remains of other sturdy buildings appear, like the Gymnasium, the Palaestra, and the Byzantine Basilica - all pending excavation.

I retrace my steps to the wonderful city gates and turn right to the remains of the Roman Baths from the 2nd century AD, which is one of the best-preserved buildings of Perge. Lovely to recognize the hypocaust with its floor heating avant la lettre. If you pay attention, you’ll notice parts of the original flooring with bits of marble (opus sectile), a marble plinth, a threshold, or a gutter. The Solarium is another of those striking elements. It proves once again how skilled Roman builders were!

To the left of the city gates lies the Large Agora, trimmed with slender Ionic columns, while the columns of the Stoa are crowned with Corinthian capitals. In the center are the remains of a round building, the purpose or use of which is unknown. As always, I try very hard to imagine the whole picture, but it is not easy, even with the help of a relief indicating that this shop was the butcher’s – a hint to many other shops in the area.

I venture further behind the Agora, in search of the vaults I had seen from my viewpoint near the Acropolis. I wonder if this could be part of an aqueduct or otherwise a Basilica? I reach a local dirt road and lose my bearings. What I do find is a wide underground sewage system, Roman of course, with at regular distances apart big square pits covered with a lid where the maintenance workers could access the underground. My road ends at a high wall and battlements, the remains of the eastern city walls.

Time is always timeless when I stroll through an antique city, and it is no surprise that I spent more than four hours browsing around. Even if I have not found much of Alexander here, there are these well-preserved round gate towers that have helped me in recognizing similar constructions elsewhere, like, for instance, in Side (Turkey) and in Apamea (Syria) – true legacies of Alexander, of course!

[Click here to see all the pictures of Perge]