Remembering Alexander’s birthday

We can be certain that Alexander never expected a hoard of tetradrachms with his effigy to be found and cherished nearly 2,500 years after his death. If that is not a worthy birthday gift, what is? 

This find dates from 2017, when a farmer recovered the coins from his land near Batman, on the confluence of the Tigris River and the Batman River in southeastern Turkey. The coins were all Alexander tetradrachms minted in the period between 332 and 322 BC. 

The coins fell into the hands of a Turkish collector, who said the hoard was complete, although no container was recorded. Since then, all the coins have been sold and disappeared from the radar. This means we only have the collector’s word for the information that has transpired. 

The coins were minted in several of the 25 known locations, such as Amphipolis, Aradus (Syria), Side, Sidon, and to a larger extent (one-third) in Babylonia. 

The Amphipolis mint was very active during the regency of Antipater, although the silver did not originate from local mines. The majority of the precious metal came from looting, and by far the largest amounts were collected by Alexander from the Achaemenid Treasuries in Babylon, Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana (see: Harpalos’ mismanagement or is it Alexander’s?). We will remember that the king borrowed money when he started his invasion of Asia and took the bullion from the cities as he conquered them. 

The Batman hoard may have belonged to one of the Greek and/or Balkan mercenaries Alexander disbanded in late 325 or early 324 BC, or to one of his Macedonian veterans he sent home after the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC. This last group of 10,000 veterans, led by Craterus, was moving slowly through Cilicia when the news of Alexander’s death reached them. In antiquity, the Batman region was on the border between the satrapies of Armenia and Mesopotamia, not far from Cilicia. For that reason, it makes sense to link the hoard to the demobilized soldiers commanded by Craterus. 

It is important to realize that the Alexander coins were minted according to the standard Attic drachma of 4.3 grams. It has been estimated that between 333 and 290 BC, approximately 60 million tetradrachms were produced (see: A few words about Alexander mints and coins). More importantly, every soldier, veteran, and foreigner was totally familiar with Alexander’s picture and trusted the value of the coin bearing his image. For a long time, coins with Alexander's image kept circulating because his veteran soldiers were used to receiving their pay in tetradrachms!  

It remains questionable whether or how many of the 60,000,000 tetradrachms will ever be found. As the coins keep surfacing, we have to thank Alexander for his long-lasting legacy. By wishing him “Many Happy Returns,” we truly pay tribute to the timeless legacy he has left us. 

A handful of Alexander coins from Chania

Chania on Crete’s northwestern coast is best known for its beaches and hotels that attract today’s tourists. Its history, however, goes back to the 14^th century BC and is centered on the ongoing excavations of the Minoan Palace of Kydonia which was destroyed by an earthquake one century later. 

[Picture of the hoard,  Greek Reporter,
Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania],

The Old Town of Chania proper has yielded a cache of 37 rare coins, including eleven gold staters of Alexander. The hoard together with two coins of Kydonia, was hidden in a space behind the wall of the acropolis of Kydonia probably by a mercenary between 300 and 280 BC. That is quite a find considering one gold stater equaled a mercenary month's salary. 

It has been established that the coins were mostly minted after Alexander’s death in the name of Philip Arrhidaeus, Seleucos or Lysimachos in different locations such as Amphipolis, Abydos, Lampsacus, etc. 

[Picture of the two-drachms of Cyrene, Greek Reporter,

Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania]

The hoard also included 15 silver staters minted in Olympia during the Olympic Games at some time in the 4^th century BC. Also one Corinthian stater of the Palace of Acarnania, a colony on the Ionian Sea; and one stater of Praisos (on the peninsula of Sitia at the eastern end of Crete). Further one two-drachms of Cyrene (North Africa), two drachms of Phaistos (62 km south of Heracleion), one drachma of Hyrtakina (in the northwest of Crete), and two pseudo-hemi-drachms of the Aegina type found in Kydonia. Last but not least, there are two early versions from Aegina showing the sea and land turtles.

Macedonia’s influence in Pelagonia

The exact location of the Kingdom of Pelagonia is still eluding archaeologists and historians, but they agree that it is somewhere in the region of Bonče in Northern Macedonia, close to the Greek border. 

Based on historical sources, Pelagon was established in the early 4^th century BC as the capital of the Pelagonian tribe. In the Iliad, however, Homer mentions that Asteropaius, who fought against Achilles in Troy, is the son of King Pelagon. Many other historical and mythological figures go by the name Pelagon, which does not help to define who is who. 

The kingdom was known to be adjacent to Paeonia, and early in his kingship, Philip II of Macedonia campaigned in those countries north of Macedonia. Paeonia was led by Parmenion, who decided to rally to the side of the new king. What exactly happened elsewhere remains rather obscure. 

Between the villages of Bonče and Podme, a necropolis with several tumuli has been located. These tombs date from between the 4^th and the 2^nd centuries BC and are all in Macedonian style. 

A larger grave site was surrounded by a circular stone wall, not unlike the Kasta Hill tomb of Amphipolis. Because of its impressive 30 meters in diameter, the tumulus has been attributed to a king of Pelagonia. A particularly long vaulted corridor of 20 meters, 2.95 meters high and 2.15 meters wide, led to the antechamber and the burial chamber proper. This room was rectangular and measured 8 x 6.6 meters with a height of 5.60 meters. Like the corridor, the main section of the tomb was cut onto the rock surface and lined with large stone blocks that reached up to a length of three meters. 

All tombs have been thoroughly plundered well before WW1. The roofs of the burial chambers have been dismantled and the stones reused in more recent local constructions. Although nothing of any historical value has been found inside the graves, the remains confirm that the 4^th century BC was a period of exceptional wealth.

In the fields of Bonče not far from these grave sites, bits of three partially preserved royal shields have been discovered with a close link to Macedonia. They display a central sun with 12 rays surrounded by three concentric circles. Around these, a series of smaller suns with 8 rays are represented. 

One of the shields carried the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟ (King Demetrios). It is generally accepted that it belonged to Demetrios II of the Antigonid dynasty, whose ancestral capital Antigona was located not far from Bonče, but this is not certain. 

[Reconstruction picture from the Macedonian Times]

The symbolic meaning of each and every detail remains problematic as so many variations have been found over the years. A handful of examples have been discussed in my earlier blog post, How Macedonian is a Macedonian shield?

[Two top pictures are from Wikipedia]

Polygyros in Chalcidice

Polygyros in Chalcidice is in the news since its Archaeological Museum has reopened after being closed for twelve years to upgrade it to today's standards. 

Chalcidice is the three-fingered peninsula just east of Thessaloniki in Northern Greece, famous for its exotic beaches and natural landscapes. It is a popular vacation destination for people from Balkan countries, Austria, and Germany. 

Polygyros is situated at the peninsula's center, with easy access to notorious antique sites like Olynthus, Potidea, and Stagira. It is also close to the narrow where King Xerxes I of Persia dug a canal across the most easterly finger (Mount Athos Peninsula) during the Second Persian War in 480 BC (see: Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle). 

I vividly remember visiting the Museum of Polygyros when I toured around Chalcidice. I was determined to see the arrowheads from Olynthus (see: Olynthus and its houses), with their unique inscription ΦΙΛΙΠΠO (Philippou), meaning from Philip. It had taken Philip of Macedonia nearly two years to conquer Olynthus, and his army apparently had quite a sense of humor. The siege ended in 348 BC, after which Philip razed the city to the ground. 

Another treasure at the museum is the surviving part of Philip's treaty with the Chalcideans. Alarmed by Philip's policy after he occupied Amphipolis in 357 BC, the Chalcidean allies and the Olynthians concluded a treaty with Philip against Athens, who had refused an earlier proposition. To seal their agreement on the treaty's terms, the two parties solemnly swore by Zeus, Gaia, Helios, and Poseidon. 

Three copies of this treaty were made, and the Chalcideans would display theirs at the Temple of Artemis in Olynthus, and Philip would do the same in the Temple of Zeus in Dion. They jointly would exhibit a third copy in Delphi after having it ratified by the gods. 

Strolling further through this small museum, I discovered several artifacts worth my attention. There was, for instance, a terracotta Niké from Sane, 6^th century BC, a lion spout from the Temple of Ammon-Zeus in Kallithea, 5^th century BC, and a piece of cornice from an archaic sanctuary in Stagira, 6^th century BC. Last but not least, an exciting collection of silver and copper coins that was unearthed in Stagira, mainly carrying effigies of Macedonian kings. There were also coins from other cities like Akanthos (modern Ierissos), Sermyle, Skione, and Ouranopolis on the Chalcidice, and from more distant Amphipolis, Pella, Thessaloniki, Corinth, etc. 

These treasures may be dwarfed in the museum that has been enlarged to accommodate an extensive donation of more than one thousand artifacts. The generous benefactor is Iraklis Lambropoulos, who donated the collection his father, Ioannis, had gathered in the 1930s. In fact, he gave it to the Greek State, provided it would be displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Polygyros. 

Today's visitor will see finding from excavations carried out throughout Chalcidice dating from the Palaeolithic to the Archaic, Classic, Hellenistic, and Roman eras. Special attention is drawn to an unfinished kouros, which may have escaped my attention or is entirely new. Noteworthy is also a marble head of Dionysos from Aphytos, 4^th century BC, two marble grave statues from the Heroon of Stratoni, 1^st century BC, and the artifacts unearthed in Olynthus and its cemetery. 

It is obvious that I should visit this museum the next time I am in Chalcidice.

Searching for the harbor of Pella

According to the latest news, archaeologists have started defining the old coastline of Pella to locate the position of its ancient harbor. 

Pella was built at the mouth of the Axios River to ensure direct access to the sea. Until now, the harbor has not been located because today, Pella lies 25 km inland (see: Pella, the birthplace of Alexander the Great). Over the past two thousand years, the harbor has silted up, transforming the once so busy lagoon into a lake, which eventually dried up. 

Mouth of the Axios River today

The archaeologists retraced the ancient coastline and the small walled island of Fakos that lay opposite the entrance, thanks to surface and geophysical surveys. They presently are investigating the role this port played in Macedonia’s history, even though Alexander started his campaign in Amphipolis. They believe that many ships of his fleet were built here. 

From the 5th century BC onwards, the harbor of Pella was a commercial hub where goods were loaded and unloaded and where visiting embassies anchored on their journey to the Royal Palace. 

Another research project is underway to learn more about the buildings and quays of this vital port city.

Link to Philip’s presence in Bulgaria

Little is known about Philip’s conquest of the land of the Getae in his early campaigns to stabilize Macedonia after the death of his elder brother, King Perdiccas III, in 359 BC. 

Perdiccas was killed in a battle against the invading Illyrians, after which Macedonia faced several threats to the kingdom’s security. There was also the matter of succession to the throne since the dead king’s son, Amyntas, was still a youngster. The Athenians tried to interfere, pushing forward a certain Argaeus and the Thracians, Pausanias who already marched towards the capital city of Pella. Given all these threats, the Macedonian Assembly unexpectedly proclaimed Philip as King, and the people swore their oath of allegiance to him. 

It was a lengthy and challenging assignment for the young Philip. The most urgent threat came from the Illyrians, who had just defeated his brother. He managed some treaties which may have included his marriage with Audata, King Bardylis’ granddaughter. 

He then turned towards the Paeonians, whom he corrupted with gifts and generous promises to reach a peace agreement. Athens with Argaeus was another serious problem, and Philip tricked them into believing he was giving up any claim on Amphipolis by withdrawing his Macedonian soldiers. The Athenians took the bait and eventually signed another peace treaty. 

Macedonia suffered from relentless attacks on all sides, but within a year, Philip managed to end the four major threats that had led to his accession to the throne. The lightning speed of his actions paid off. Although peace was never long-lived, Philip cleverly manipulated his opponents using diplomacy, deceit, bribery, and political marriages. 

In 342/341 BC (see: Macedonia forged by Philip II – part 11), Philip successfully dislodged the Thracians in the east, occupying the cities along the Hellespont - a very sensitive area as he needed to control this inland route. Later that year, he turned northwards against the people who lived between Thracia and the Danube Valley. Their King Cothelas was quick to surrender, giving his daughter, Meda, in marriage to Philip to become his sixth wife (see: The Many Wives of Philip II). 

Recent excavations have located the tomb of Cothelas in northeastern Bulgaria, near the modern village of Sveshtari, roughly 400 km from the capital, Sofia. Although references to the Thracian king remain vague, the largest tomb in that burial complex may very well be his. Archaeologists have unearthed precious gold gifts, including 44 applications of female figures, 100 golden buttons, and a golden ring. The piece de resistance is a tiara with animal motifs and a horse headpiece. Altogether, the site counts about 150 tombs all belonging to the Thracian tribe, the Getae. 

Let’s hope that further excavations will reveal more about these Thracians, of which much remains shrouded in mystery.

[Pictures from Daily Mail]

Heraklea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria

There are a great number of towns going by the name Heraclea or Herakleia throughout Turkey and Greece. Wikipedia provides an enticing list of places. 

In previous blogs, I developed Herakleia Pontus, a kingdom in Bithynia (see: Time to reconnect with Princess Amastris), Herakleia by Latmos to be found on the banks of Lake Bafa in Western Turkey, Herakleia Lyncestis in Illyria (see: King Philip, one year later – Macedonia forged by Philip II), and Heracleion-Thonis (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt).

This time, I’m focusing on Heraclea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria. The additive Sintica refers to the Sintians, a Thracian tribe that lived in the Valley of the Struma, the Greek Strymon River that runs past Amphipolis. The Sintian occupation goes back to 1300-1200 BC. Although many sources claim that the city had been founded by Cassander around 300 BC, others state that it was Philip, Alexander’s father who conquered Sintica and added Heraclea to remind the Thracians and the Macedonians that his ancestor was Heracles. The city’s layout appears to be similar to that of Philippi or Philippopolis. 

Heraclea Sintica was a major hub on the North-South traffic and connected the Aegean coast to Macedonia, Thracia, and the Balkan hinterland. In its heyday, its population may have reached 40-50,000 inhabitants! 

The city existed at least until the 6^th century AD since it was mentioned in the Byzantine tax records of Emperor Justinian the Great. 

Although the city's name was known, it took some investigation to find its location. A Latin inscription left by Emperor Galerius revealed that in response to their plea to restore their lost civil rights in 308 AD, he addressed the local citizens as those of Heraclea Sintica. 

Serious and steady excavations in Heraclea Sintica are pretty recent and seem to have started in 2007. 

By 2016, an imposing Basilica was unearthed measuring 22m x 16m with walls rising five meters tall, next to other sanctuaries and shops. An older Basilica from the 4th century BC was discovered a year earlier. A striking find happened in 2017 when a Roman gold necklace came to light. It has been dated to the 4^th century AD and may have been made by craftsmen in Rome. 

In 2018, a headless Roman statue from ca. 100 AD was found underneath the stairs of the Forum. The statue represents a magistrate and was apparently carefully buried four meters deep. More recently, a female head was discovered in the eastern corner of the Forum. This head carries traces of ocher paint indicating that the woman was blond. In ancient times blond hair symbolized sin. This beautiful marble seems to date to the same time as the headless man. It is too early to draw any conclusion about the reason for these careful burial rights as the site has not been entirely investigated yet. Intriguingly, both discoveries were made underneath buildings of later periods. Archaeologists suppose that these respectful funerals could have had a ritual meaning in antiquity – and may be meant as protection from calamities or barbarian attacks. 

More questions remain unsolved like the bone needle whose end was wrapped in a thin gold sheet. It must have belonged to a woman of some importance who lived in Heraclea Sintica in the 2^nd century AD. 

Undoubtedly, many more buildings and artifacts are still hidden from view awaiting to be uncovered.

The Tumulus at Amphipolis, monument for Hephaistion?

A lot has been written about the Kasta Hill Tumulus at Amphipolis and many of the theories and absurdities have made it to my blog. 

It all started in 2012, see: Has the tomb of Roxane and young Alexander been located? After much nonsense about Alexander being buried at Amphipolis (see: Nonsense about Alexander’s grave in Amphipolis) in 2014, the hype exploded in 2014 when everyone expressed its own opinions with more or less conviction (see: Amphipolis/Kasta Hill … here we go again!). 

The first serious study about Hephaistion’s presence occurred in 2019 (see: The site of Kasta Hill and the Tomb of Amphipolis). It was not until today that I got hold of this excellent report by Professor Emeritus Dimitrios Dendrinos shared by Academia.edu. 

 

On the Tumulus at Amphipolis

A paper by:

DIMITRIOS S. DENDRINOS, Professor Emeritus

Ph.D., MArchUD, Dipl. Arch Eng.

10/27/15; 1st update 11/1/15; 2nd update 12/24/15; 3rd update 1/10/16

 

Summary.

This paper is a sequel to four prior papers by the author on the subject of the Great Tumulus at Amphipolis. It incorporates some new evidence, as presented by the archeological team responsible for the excavation at Kasta Hill (near the old City of Amphipolis, in Macedonia, Greece) on September 30, 2015 [1]. Some General as well as certain Specific (but nonetheless all major) points, are outlined in this paper. They all confirm the author’s prior views on some key issues involved in both the architecture and historiography of Kasta Tumulus. However, this paper also serves to amend certain points made in the prior works by this author. It also adds considerably to the evidence linking a local version of the Bull Cult, covering a broader Region including Samothrace, to the monument at Kasta.

General points: (i) it is now almost certain that the major construction phase of the Tumulus at

Kasta commenced immediately following Hephaestion’s death in November 324 BC. It is almost certain that it was at that point in time intended as a burial place and monument for Hephaestion. Very likely, it was designed in the form of a Serapium Temple and in the overall religious tradition of a Bull Cult. In Appendix A it is suggested that a prior structure was there, as a Temple to Artemis Tavropolos. (ii) Deinokratis was very likely the Architect of the Hephaestion monument and tomb. Most likely his presence and tenure at Kasta lasted only about a couple of years. (iii) These conclusions are consistent to an extent with the archeological team’s views, expressed on August 10, 2014 and thereafter. They are also partly consistent with Professor Mavrojannis “Hephaestion Hypothesis” first presented on September 10, 2014. In Appendix B correspondence with Professor Mavrojannis is shown, which fully justifies this author’s characterization of the Hephaestion Hypothesis. In combination, these three (the two Peristeri plus the Mavrojannis) hypotheses fully confirm the propositions last presented by the author in his paper “On Certain Key Architectural Elements of Kasta Tumulus” Update #4 (as well as its Final Version). Additional evidence presented here further strengthens the conclusions of that paper.

Specific points: (i) Contrary to the claims by the archeological team, the perimeter of Kasta Tumulus is a circle, not an ellipse; (ii) The Lion of Amphipolis was never installed and was not intended for the top of the Hill; (iii) The perimeter wall is in no way possible “three meters tall”; (iv) The proposition that “the monument was accessible with a staircase” is inconsistent with a an exposed perimeter wall. These four items are elaborated in Part 1 of this paper. (v) The finding by this author that the tomb’s modulus (1.36m) in its ratio to the length of the circumferential wall (497m), a wall which was meant to be a calendar, produces an astonishing astronomical approximation to the exact numbers of day in a year (365.44) now has a possible candidate as being behind it: the mathematician-astronomer and Aristotle co-worker, Callippus;

This aspect of Kasta is elaborated in Part 2. (vi) Amphipolis and Kasta are linked to the Sanctuary in Samothrace by a Bull Cult depicted both in the Sanctuary’s site plan at its early phase of construction, and the inside of Arcinoe’s Temple there; this issue is addressed in Part 3. (vii) The archeological team’s new evidence, presented on 9/30/2015 as it relates to Hephaestion is extensively discussed and critically analyzed in Part 4. (viii) There is a possibility the Hephaestion tomb and monument was built in a space used prior to that as a Temple to Artemis Tavropolos; this issue (along with geologist Kabouroglou evaluation of the tomb’s dimensions) is discussed in Appendix A. 

Some analysis of Kasta’s internal dimensions is presented in Note 1, where references also to certain basic ratios found to govern key elements of the Parthenon, and the Temple of Epicurius Apollo at Bessae are made. The topic of dimensions in Monumental Architecture is elaborated throughout the paper, and some analysis of Halicarnassus Mausoleum is supplied along these lines. Note 2, plus Appendix C do address these issues also.

A number of key conclusions (as presented by the author in a string of four papers, published from October 2014 till July 2015, and their corresponding revisions) stand, although a few minor ones are amended here. One of them concerns the Kasta tomb orientation at the time it was constructed: new evidence confirms that it was built quite close to a North-South axis. 

Far too much has be speculated about the occupant of the Tomb at Kasta Hill, but as developed above, it is very plausible that Alexander planned Hephaistion’s Tomb in Amphipolis. It will take years to have a final answer which for now, is very satisfactory.

Endless fuss over the tomb of Alexander the Great

As theories about the final resting place of Alexander the Great abound, it may be a good time to summarize what we know. 

After being embalmed in Babylon, Alexander’s mummified body was transported with due pomp to Pella, where he was born and where all Macedonian kings were buried traditionally. However, Ptolemy, now ruling over Egypt, decided to intercept the splendid coffin as it passed through Syria. He said that Alexander had wanted to be buried in Egypt, in his first city of Alexandria. 

At that time, Alexandria was still under construction, and the king’s mummy was temporarily deposed in Memphis, the hitherto capital of Egypt. Ptolemy eventually transferred Alexander’s remains to Alexandria. Ancient sources are almost silent about the size and location of this first tomb. 

Ptolemy IV Philopator built a grand mausoleum for Alexander around 215-214 BC, probably as imagined by his great-grandfather, Ptolemy I. This Philopator transferred Alexander’s mummy during a splendidly organized ceremony. With Philopator’s lineage of predecessors, Alexander was put to rest somewhere in the center of Alexandria, later called the Soma, i.e., within the Palace District. 

At some point, the mummy was protected by a glass surrounding him. That is how Augustus, the first Roman Emperor saw it. His example was followed by at least Caesar (assassinated in 41 BC), Caligula (ruled 12-41 AD), Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), Septimius Severus (ruled 193-211 AD), and Caracalla (ruled 198-217 AD), who were all great admirers of Alexander. After 391 AD, when paganism was entirely outlawed, history lost track of the mummy after being on display for almost seven centuries. 

Strangely, no picture and no full description of Alexander’s last resting place has survived – not even of the Soma and/or Royal Palace. However, we do have coins and mosaics representing the Pharos built by Ptolemy I. One would logically assume that the Soma was far more important than the lighthouse. It remains everyone’s guess why we don’t have any description of the Soma and its location inside Alexandria? 

Northern Africa suffered severely from a devastating earthquake in 365 AD, causing the entire coastline to drop by four meters (see: Apollonia in Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) after Alexander). The consequences of the ensuing tsunami may not have flooded the Soma immediately, and it may have sunk slowly till it disappeared around 391 AD, as mentioned above. The tomb of Alexander obviously drowned together with the Palace of the Ptolemies. 

The big question is, what happened to the remains of Alexander supposing they could be saved, either from the flooding or from unrest inside Egypt? Theories are endless. 

The analysis made by Andrew Chugg centered around the Mosque of Nabi Daniel which would have hidden Alexander’s corpse in a sarcophagus way beneath the present street level. Chugg claims that these remains were taken to Venice in 828 AD as being those of St Mark. They are now in St Mark’s Cathedral (see: The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great by Andrew Chugg). 

Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi assumed that at some point, the king’s mummy was transferred to Siwah as Ptolemy fulfilled Alexander’s wish. The recorded visits of the Roman emperors to Alexandria, for instance, are merely ignored in her theory. Liana Souvaltzi started excavating the Temple of Amon-Ra in Siwah in 1989, but in 1995, the Greek and Egyptian governments suddenly blocked her permit. Today, she still fights to resume her excavations, however, without success. 

When the Kasta Hill tomb in Amphipolis was discovered a few years ago, one of the many supposed occupants was Alexander the Great (see: Amphipolis/Kasta Hill … here we go again!) Here is the list of possible candidates: 

Roxane, Alexander IV, the son of Alexander, Olympias, Cleopatra, sister of Alexander), Cassander (son of Antipater), Antigonus Monophthalmus, Hephaistion, Heracles (the illegitimate son of Alexander and Barsine), Polyandrion, Polyperchon, Philip-Arrhidaeus, (half-brother of Alexander), Philip II (Alexander’s father, as many still doubt that he lies in the tumulus of Aegae).

The most recent theory here is that it was supposed to be the last resting place for Hephaistion. 

More news came from the Hellenic Institute for the Research of Alexandria Culture in 2017 (see: Magnificent Alexander statue found in Alexandria). They are working in the Shalallat Gardens area, where they claim to have located remains from the Royal Quarters of the Ptolemies. More exciting is the discovery of a unique marble statue of Alexander the Great in these gardens, fueling new theories about the king’s tomb once again.

Earlier this year, while discussing the presumed Tomb of Queen Olympias near Pydna (see: The tomb of Olympias found?), the leading Professor claimed that this tomb was similar to the one attributed to Alexander at Siwah.  

In the end, there have been many more theories as I am not including those expressed in the widespread versions of the Alexander Romance (see: Le Roman d’Alexandre, traduit du grec par A Tallet-Bonvalot). None of them were satisfactory.