The surprise of Myndos

Nowadays, Myndos is probably best-known for its underwater causeway running from the city’s harbor to Rabbit Island, which is guarding the mainland. It is a favorite with the tourists who happily walk across the bay when the sea level is only reaching to their knees. Otherwise, the site has very little to offer with cut stones and column drums strewn around. 

These ruins make it very difficult to imagine that Myndos was once a large prosperous city. In 377 BC, King Mausolos of Halicarnassus established Caria’s independence from Persia. He rebuilt the cities of Myndos and Syangela, and moved all other Carians to Halicarnassus, which he proclaimed his new capital (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria). 

Myndos, modern Gümüșlük, had a well-sheltered harbor, well-protected against the prevailing wind. The city had a two-mile-long fortification wall and its most vulnerable southeastern section was strengthened with towers. The green granite used for its construction is the same as the one known from the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus. The quarry providing these stones has been located in Koyunbaba, some three kilometers to the north. 

Otherwise, hardly anything else remains from ancient Myndos. Some rock-cut stairs and foundations of houses are found on the hillside, but the ruins that were present in the early 19^th century have entirely disappeared. They are said to belong to a theater from the 4th century BC, a stadium with 7 columns, vaulted remains of a Bath, and a late Roman/early Byzantine basilica. 

Until the 1990s, there were more ancient stone blocks and bits of columns lying around in the village. Near a school, about 1.5 kilometers inland, some columns and Roman mosaics could be seen. Strangely, the nearby silver mines (hence the name Gümüșlük) are not mentioned in ancient sources. 

When Alexander besieged Halicarnassus in 334 BC, he speculated that Myndos would offer an easier approach. Some people in Myndos had actually suggested that they might open the city gates if he arrived under cover of darkness. Alexander took their word, but when he showed up at the gates there was no sign of surrender. Facing the betrayal, he ordered his Macedonians to attack without much result because he had not brought any rams, artillery or ladders. Myndos put up a vigorous resistance and soon was joined by Halicarnassus’ troops arriving by sea. Alexander was forced to withdraw and returned to besiege Halicarnassus. 

The capital of Caria was not taken so easily because the Persian commander Orontobates had the support of the Persian fleet. For the time being, Halicarnassus was no longer a real threat. Alexander moved on but left Ptolemy and Asander behind to finally take the city and to evict the remaining Persians. It was only a year later, in Soli, that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen!  At the same time, the town of Myndos came under Macedonian hands (see: A two-month-project to excavate the city of Soli). 

After the king’s death, Myndos was ruled by the Ptolemies from 308 until 275 BC. In 96 BC, it became independent and minted its own coins. Myndos was included in the Roman Province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. 

The harbor city was again in the news after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, after which Brutus and Cassius were expelled from Rome; they took their fleet to safety here at Myndos. By the end of 42 BC, the two murderers lost the battle against Marc Antony and Octavian in Philippi, and Myndos was given to Rhodes (see: Philippi, Macedonia’s gold and silver mines). Not for long though as the Rhodians treated Myndos harshly and unfairly and became independent again. However, it gradually lost its prosperity, although it may have survived till the 7th century AD. 

Myndos is often referred to as a Lelegian town, dating back to the Bronze Age. Except for its name, it has no connection with the classical city discussed in this article and both have a different history. The Lelegian site is nowadays called Old Myndos and lies a good three kilometers southeast of Gümüșlük.

Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander

The massive circular tomb of Emperor Augustus in Rome has recently been opened to the public. This makes headline news to most people (including the Roman citizens) because the building was neglected and stood abandoned for the past 80 years. Finally, renovation works were completed, and the mausoleum has opened for visitors. 

The Mausoleum of the first Roman Emperor stands along the Tiber River just as the much better-known Castel Sant’Angelo, which initially was conceived as a mausoleum for the later Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD) and his family. 

Working on the Tomb of Augustus, archaeologists were in for some surprises. They always thought that this mausoleum was cone-shaped, but their restoration revealed a cylindrical building. That is not surprising if we look at Hadrian’s Mausoleum, which also stands along the Tiber and is cylindrical. 

As Octavian returned home after his victory over Egypt, he proclaimed himself emperor and took the name Augustus. This was the proper time to start the construction of his tomb. With his title of Emperor came the megalomania of having the largest mausoleum ever with a diameter of about 87 meters! It seems that even today, this is a world record. The idea was that the emperors coming after him would also be buried in this tomb. So the ashes of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were indeed interred in this necropolis. It must have made quite a statement with its shiny marble walls. Archaeologists suspect that an enormous statue of Augustus crowned the mausoleum. 

This type of construction was apparently not confined to Rome since other similar tombs existed in Algeria. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Tipaza may be the best-preserved example. It was built in 3 BC for King Juba II of Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, his wife. This queen was the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. She successfully ruled over Mauretania until she died in 6 BC. Her husband built this mausoleum for her, and based on its size, the idea probably was to also use it for future generations of royal families. King Juba died in 23 AD, and his remains joined those of his wife. 

The mausoleum appears not to be unique as the shape was known throughout Numidia. It may, however, also be inspired by Augustus’ tomb which was built some 25 years earlier. The circular stone construction with a diameter of 60 meters was initially topped with a cone or pyramid standing 40 meters tall. The walls were decorated around the outside perimeter with 60 Ionic columns, which have now lost their capitals. Inside there were two separate vaulted chambers. 

A recent article published on Academia by Michael Bengtsson, “Reconstruction of the Palace area in Alexandria,” sheds another light on the Mausoleum of Alexander, which was visited for centuries in Alexandria. The author has carefully reconstructed the Royal Palace of Alexandria, referring to the texts written by Zenobius, Strabo, Suetonius, and Lucan. 

Based on the striking resemblance between the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Algeria and the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Michael Bengtsson concluded that the tomb of Alexander served as a prototype for both. I think we may safely assume that the size of Alexander’s circular tomb must have surpassed all! 

In the case of the Algerian Mausoleum, we can be confident that Cleopatra Selene, born in Alexandria, thoroughly knew the Palace and the burial site of Alexander. As General Octavian, Augustus conquered Alexandria in 30 BC after winning the Battle of Actium against Marc Antony. He also visited the tomb of Alexander. And finally, Hadrian was in Alexandria in 130 BC. As a lover of all things Greek, he most certainly was full of admiration for Alexander and must have seen his tomb. He may well have been inspired to use the circular shape for his own Mausoleum.

Other Roman emperors who paid their respects to Alexander were Julius Caesar in 45 BC, Caligula, Septimius Severus early 3rd century AD, and Caracalla in the 3rd century AD. It is said that Septimius Severus closed Alexander’s tomb to the public when too many tourists flocked to see it! The crowds and tourists are of all times, it seems.

See also: Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

[Top picture from World History Encyclopedia - Second picture from Atlas Obscura - Bottom picture from Michael Bengtsson]

How modern is an antique ring?

At first sight, the image shows a gorgeous and very modern ring, a true designer’s piece, enough to raise anyone’s curiosity.

To my greatest surprise, I learned that it belonged to Emperor Caligula, who succeeded Tiberius in 37 BC. This means that the dazzling and breathtaking sapphire ring is almost two thousand years old! Knowing that sapphires are only a little less hard than diamonds, it is incredible that in Roman times craftsmen mastered the skill to cut and polish this stone. What’s more, they even were capable of carving the delicate portrait of a woman on the front of the ring.

Research has revealed that the portrait displays Caligula’s last wife, Caesonia, whose mind was as twisted at that of her husband. 

The ring came up for auction in 2019, together with other jewelry that belonged to the Marlborough Collection. This collection of 800 carved gemstones and cameos was amassed by the 4th Duke of Marlborough in the 18th century. Most jewelry dated from antiquity. By 1899 the gems were sold off, and many pieces ended up in private hands. Sadly, today’s experts only know the whereabouts of approximately one-quarter of the collection.

In this context, a portrait of Marc Antony also seems to have the same provenance. His image is carved in a Roman golden framed sard (a variety of chalcedony). His less bloody love affair with Cleopatra also went down in history.

[Pictures from My Modern Met]

Massive plundering of art in the early years of the Roman Empire

The plundering and looting of artwork have been ongoing for centuries, and it was not Emperor Augustus’ scoop. In a previous blog, Wartime Looting in antiquity, I covered many ancient artifacts that changed owners over the centuries. This time, I want to focus on Augustus’ contribution, among which are some treasures related to Alexander the Great.

Octavian's conquest of Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean clearly went to his head. He was now the most powerful man on earth for all to see and respect. To underscore his role, he proclaimed himself emperor, taking the name of Augustus, which means majestic and venerable. Modesty was not his virtue.

The greatest treasures that fell into Octavian's hands came from Alexandria, where the Ptolemies had amassed many artworks from the most famous Greek artists like Apelles, Alexander’s privileged painter, and Antiphilus, a contemporary of Apelles and maybe a rival. However, he worked mainly for Philip II and for Ptolemy I. Egypt was an untouched trophy, and besides their Greek heritage, they had gathered spoils from Africa and collected other precious Orientalist Greek-Egyptian works of art, all to be added to their own centuries-old cultural heritage. Obviously, Octavian’s army helped itself during what must have been quite a rampage after the downfall of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Upon their return to Rome, blinded by the wealth that poured into the city, everybody of name and fame wanted a piece of the pie and acquired what they could by all possible means: from honest purchases and authentic gifts to robbery, haggling, blackmail, or bribery.

Egypt was not the first victim, and we will remember that only a good one hundred years before, the Romans had helped themselves to the treasures of Macedonia in 168 BC when they won the decisive Battle of Pydna. Aemilius Paulus took the royal library of Macedonia with him, and Sulla followed suit in 86 BC, helping himself to Aristotle’s personal library in Athens. Marc Antony simply dispatched the 200,000 parchment rolls from the Library of Pergamon to Cleopatra in 43 BC as a wedding gift. Papyri and parchment rolls were no booty to show off with, but paintings, statues, and jewelry enabled you to brag. As kingdoms like Macedonia and Pergamon were subdued by Rome, they became treasure troves for art lovers and the nouveau riche.

Julius Caesar was already a great “collector,” and Octavian, as the new Emperor Augustus, would not stay behind. With the increase of its wealth, Rome developed further refinement. Several private connoisseurs are known by name, like L. Lucinius Luculius and Novius Vindex, who highly appreciated Greek bronze and marble statues made by Lysippos (he acquired a statuette of Heracles, which was previously owned by Alexander, Hannibal, and Sulla), Praxiteles, Phidias, Skopas, and Polycleitus, and the paintings by Apelles were among their prized objects.

Augustus “bought” a famous painting of Aphrodite by Apelles, a controversial transaction that officially enabled the citizens of Cos to pay their outstanding taxes, but some obscure blackmail is more likely. The painting was exhibited for the opening of the Temple of the deified Julius Caesar in the Forum Romanum in 29 BC. Despite the eulogy written by several Latin poets, it remains unclear whether this Aphrodite was painted in the nude, rising from the sea and wringing her hair, or if only her upper body was showing. Two more paintings by Apelles were put on public display on the Forum, probably because they featured Alexander the Great. They were “Castor and Pollux with Victory and Alexander the Great” and “The Figure of War with his Hands tied behind him following the Triumphal Chariot of Alexander.”

Everything tied to Alexander was a prime possession as Augustus was a great admirer of the world conqueror and visited his tomb while he was in Alexandria. So it seems that the bronze Nike statues that supported each corner of the canopy over Alexander’s funeral chariot, as described by Diodorus, found their way to Rome as two of them were placed in front of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the two others stood in front of the Regia. These Nikes originally were covered with gold foil or gilt and not made of massive gold, as often assumed, for that would have made the statues too heavy for the funeral chariot.

Another close relation to Alexander was found in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. According to Pliny the Elder, inside this temple stood a magnificent bronze chandelier “with the lights fixed like apples on a tree,” which had been taken by Alexander from Thebes in 335 BC (another earlier spoil of war!). Alexander had dedicated it as his votive offering after victory at the Battle of the Granicus.

The Alexandrian painter Antiphilus was another favorite artist of the Roman emperor. A group representing “Alexander with Philip and Athena” was placed in Rome’s Portico of Octavia with ”Noble Hesione.” In the nearby Portico of Philippi, three more works found a place: “Alexander portrayed in his early teens,” “Dionysus,” and the “Death of Hippolytos.”

Augustus’ greed was boundless, and he did not hesitate to confiscate the chryselephantine statue of Athena from Tegea, made by a certain Endoios, to place it on the Forum Augusti. At the time of his conquest of Egypt, he also seized the statue of Zeus made by Myron from Samos and moved it to the Capitol Hill in Rome.

These are, of course, only a few examples, for it is impossible to know how many works of art Augustus brought to Rome and how many pieces from previous acquisitions changed hands in those days. Yet the quantities and mainly their quality were unheard of, and we must thank Pliny the Elder for documenting the works displayed in Rome’s many public buildings and porticoes. Pausanias, also, during his extensive travels, highlighted the prized collection. Plutarch, in turn, had an eye for Cleopatra’s treasures, including precious metals, jewels, pearls, and ivory.

It is hard to imagine the wealth and luxury displayed in the heyday of Rome, for this is far beyond anything we can imagine. Opulence was the common good; the Romans ruled the world, and they showed it.

[The above is based on an article published by Academia.edu: Plundered art in the galleries of Augustan Rome, uploaded by Tomasz Polański. The pictures are mine.]

Anamur, ancient Anemurium in Cilicia

Anemurium, modern Anamur, is situated on a promontory along the ancient coastal road of Rough Cilicia (Cilicia Tracheia) in southern Turkey. The city was founded by the Phoenicians and successively occupied by the Assyrians, the Hittites, and again by the Phoenicians till Alexander the Great conquered Cilicia in 333 BC. After his death, it was ruled by the Seleucids, followed by the Romans, as we know that Marc Anthony generously gave Cilicia to Cleopatra.

Anemurium was a thriving city in Roman times, and its impressive remains date from circa 100 BC to 600 AD, occupying a 1500-meter-wide bay and the entire width of about 400 meters between the beach and the mountain slope. The city walls are pretty well preserved together with two theaters and several – obviously Roman – bathhouses and aqueducts. The steep mountain slope, in turn, is riddled with hundreds of tombs, of which a few still contain their original funerary paintings and mosaics.

The largest of the theaters still counts 26 rows, totaling 2700 seats, and faces the sea. Nearby is a small Odeon and a large three-aisled basilica. The most impressive bathhouse has two storeys with a vaulted roof and stands close to the mountain and connecting aqueduct. It is easy to recognize the appropriate role of each room with a caldarium (the hot bath), a tepidarium (the warm bath), and the frigidarium (cold bath), beside the changing room and an extra hall with a pool. The guests were welcomed to these Thermae with an inscription above the gate saying “Welcome to the baths. Have a good bath”.

Most striking are the remains of Mamure Castle situated some seven kilometers east of modern Anamur. This castle dates from medieval times but is resting on Roman foundations from the 3^rd-4^th century AD. It has been enlarged and modified by the Byzantines and the Crusaders, and finally by the Seljuks in 1221 - this is what we can see today.

This Mamure Kale is quite an impressive construction surrounded by a moat. It is built around several courtyards, one of which holds a mosque with a minaret from the early 1300s, and all the courtyards together are enhanced with thirty-nine towers. The high ramparts offer a sweeping view over the Mediterranean as well as the hinterland – a strategic point, of course.

Underwater archaeology reveals more Roman shipwrecks

More and more archaeological work is carried out underwater and the Mediterranean is a proliferating source as new discoveries make the headlines on a regular basis.

In the bay of Alexandria, three Roman shipwrecks have been discovered together with an Egyptian votive barge and a collection of small artifacts among which are gold coins from the reign of Emperor Augustus. Underwater archaeologists are expecting to expose a fourth shipwreck during this year’s mission (2018) as large wooden beams and pottery belonging to its presumed cargo have been located. Another interesting find is this crystal head which is probably representing Marc Antony.

Further north on a reef near the Cycladic island of Naxos, an underwater expedition located no less than eight shipwrecks from various periods of the Roman Empire. Diving teams are gearing up for the next exploration since these ships are lying at only 30 meters below sea level. In a first attempt, they have been dated between 100 BC and 300 AD.

More recently, scientists who were surveying the effects of climate change in the Black Sea discovered dozens of perfectly preserved wrecks from the Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman eras. What makes this find unique is the fact that the water of the Black Sea below 150 meters contains no oxygen (anoxic) and thus cannot support organisms that usually thrive on organic material. This means that the wood and ropes are still in excellent condition. The bulk of the wrecks are about 1300 years old but so far the oldest one is dated back to the 4^th century BC.

Using two Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs), researchers were able to “see” these wrecks at a depth of 1,800 meters. So far, they have explored a distance of 1,250 kilometers! It must be quite exciting for them to discover that the ship’s masts are still standing, their rudders are in place, and the cargoes and ship’s fittings are scattered on the deck. As detailed features of the ships became visible, they found that the fittings and equipment matched the drawings and descriptions we had till now.

Leading Professor Jon Adams, of the University of Southampton, said it all: 'This assemblage must comprise one of the finest underwater museums of ships and seafaring in the world'.

[Picture of the crystal head is from Ahmra Online]
[Picture of the shipwreck is from Archaeology News Network]

Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies

Cleopatra was not only the last queen to rule over Egypt before the country fell into Roman hands; she also was the last of the Ptolemaic Dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a prominent general in the army of Alexander the Great.

After Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals after a long feud and endless wars that lasted for forty years. From the onset, Ptolemy had his eyes set on Egypt, and apparently, none of his competitors contested his territory. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt for about three hundred years, putting Alexandria as its glorious new capital on the world map.

 

In 53 BC, the 17-year-old Cleopatra VII co-reigned with her brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV, whom she married following the Egyptian tradition and desperately tried to keep Egypt out of Roman grip. It is known that Cleopatra was ambitious, and she arranged for her brothers to be eliminated to become the sole ruler.

So, Cleopatra significantly sought his support when Julius Cesar arrived in Alexandria in 48 BC. They became lovers, and she bore him a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC. Three years later, she left for Rome with her son, but Caesar was murdered by a group of Roman senators within a year. Rome was divided by Octavian and Marc Antony supporters, and since the latter was more popular, Cleopatra concentrated on gaining Marc Antony’s favors. This chagrined the Romans, especially when Marc Antony gave away parts of his empire to Cleopatra in 34 BC. 

Meanwhile, they became lovers, and Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy, and a girl, Alexander and Cleopatra, in 40 BC. Their names were changed to Alexander Helios (Sun) and Cleopatra Selene (Moon) three years later when the queen joined Marc Antony in Antioch (modern Turkey). This name-giving happened on the day of an eclipse. This may have led to choosing of a mythological name for the twins. Another son was born in 36 BC and received the name Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Meanwhile, Octavian declared war on this foreign queen in Rome, and he won the Battle of Actium over Marc Antony. A year later, in 30 BC, Octavian landed in Alexandria to face Marc Antony personally, but rather than being killed by his adversary Marc Antony committed suicide. With Cleopatra at his mercy, Octavian refused negotiation of any kind, and Cleopatra, feeling that there was no way out, killed herself – allegedly using poisonous snakes. With her death, the Ptolemaic Dynasty ended.

Caesarion, or Ptolemy Caesar, was then 17 years of age, and he was killed by Octavian only ten days after his own mother. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire ruled by Octavian, who promoted himself to Emperor Augustus. 

The three children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony were spared by Octavian and taken to Rome instead. The twins were 10 years old, and the little brother was four by then. Their care was entrusted to Octavia, Octavian’s sister, who was, ironically, the widow of Marc Antony. A few years later, the boys disappeared from history, but the girl, Cleopatra Selene, married King Juba II of Mauretania. As far as we know, she had at least one son whom she called Ptolemy Philadelphus, probably in memory of her little brother. It seems she ruled as an equal with her husband since both their images were minted on the local coins.

Fate has added a little twist of its own. Recently an Italian Egyptologist has dusted off a statue from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo portraying Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene as small children. The sculpture was discovered in 1918 near the temple of Dendera on the banks of the Nile. It was stored away in the museum. The ten-meter-high statue shows two naked children of identical size, one male and one female, standing within the coils of two snakes. They are holding each other with one arm around the shoulder of the other while they are grasping the snake with their other hand. They have identified thanks to the sun disc around the boy's head and the lunar disc and crescent held by the girl. We also find the Horus eye on each disc, a typical symbol in Egyptian art. The faces are not very clear, but the boy appears with curly hair and a braid on the right side of his head, as was customary. The girl’s hair is cut according to the fashion of the Ptolemaic dynasty and of Cleopatra in particular. 

It is nice to see that at least a picture of these poor children has survived for 2,100 years. What history they could have written!

[Picture of Ceasarion is from Wikipedia]

[Picture of Cleopatra and Ceasarion at de Temple of Dendera is from Wikipedia] 

[Picture of Cleopatra's twins is from Discovery News]

The surprise of Butrint, ancient Buthrotum in Epirus

Under Roman rule, the Via Egnatia strategically connected Byzantium via Thessaloniki to Rome thanks to the crossing of the Adriatic Sea between Dyrrhachium and Brundisium. But there was another lesser road that led south to the city of Buthrotum, modern Butrint, right across from Saranda, one of the newest bay resorts in Albania.

Yet Buthrotum was not born with the Romans but like most towns in the area, it was founded by colonists from Corinth and Corfu at some time during the 7th or 6th century BC – although according to the legend its founder was a son of King Priam of Troy, which is a more noble ancestry, of course. To me, this is Epirus, the homeland of Queen Olympias, Alexander’s mother and it is not surprising that in her days the city was important enough to have a sanctuary dedicated to Asclepius with its own theatre and agora; besides, it was protected by a city-wall with five entrance gates.

For some reason, I always thought that all of Epirus was part of modern Greece, but it seems that this ancient country has been split up between Greece to the south and Albania to the north. All I knew about it was the oracle of Dodona, so it is a surprise to hear that Buthrotum was important before the arrival of the Romans. The main attraction may well have been the sanctuary of Asclepius, which was built on a series of terraces rising from a paved area in front of the theatre. The reconstruction as shown on the billboard at the entrance of the site is very clear, but it is much harder to find pre-Roman evidence on the site itself. The sanctuary included a temple, a stoa, and a treasury, all modified by the 3rd century BC to include a theatre and a building that may have served as a hotel for the pilgrims.

As early as 228 BC, Buthrotum became a Roman protectorate, and its influence spread steadily till the city was included in the province of Macedonia. Julius Caesar thought it was an appropriate place to settle his veterans after fighting Pompey in 44 BC, but a wealthy local landlord, Titus Pomponius Atticus, objected to these plans and went so far as to plead his case at the Roman Senate through his friend, the orator Cicero. He was successful, and only a small number of settlers were relocated to Buthrotum. They blended in pretty easily with the locals, and their presence left a definite Roman stamp on the city.

It seems appropriate to take a closer look at Titus Pomponius Atticus, one of the richest men of his time. He lived in Athens for almost twenty years (hence the name Atticus) and showed great interest in Greek culture and philosophy. He bought an estate near Buthrotum and probably acquired more land in neighboring Epirus and Corfu. Although his villa is explicitly mentioned in his correspondence with Cicero, it has not yet been found, but it is generally accepted so far that it was situated in the river valley, where cool breezes soften the heat of summer. Atticus’ wealth, which he acquired as a financier and by managing his land properties, gave him great influence in politics as we have seen above. He was a gifted politician who managed to remain on good terms with both parties involved, the Romans and the locals. He died in 32 BC, aged 78, shortly before the Battle of Actium. Five years earlier, he gave his daughter Caecilia in marriage to Agrippa, Augustus’ friend and general. Consequently, Atticus’ influence continued after his death through his son-in-law.

In 31 BC, Emperor Augustus conceived plans similar to those of Caesar for after his victory over Marc Anthony and Cleopatra at Actium (some 200 km south of Butrint), he considered Buthrotum to settle his veterans. Once again, the new arrivals, though limited in number, blended in well, and the city expanded rapidly, doubling in size even. At this stage, Buthrotum required a major building plan, which was funded by Augustus in person as well as by his family or private parties. The main projects were the construction of a new aqueduct to feed the many fountains and bathhouses, and a bridge across the Vivari Channel. At this stage, the city appears as Colonia Augusta Buthrotum. Most of what we see today at Butrint may date from Augustus’ reign since statues of the emperor and of his wife Livia have been found – a sure sign of the city’s loyalty and support.

As in any excavation site, the theatre is what we see first. Although the earliest construction goes back to the 4th century BC, when it was part of the Sanctuary of Asclepius, it was clearly rebuilt and enlarged during the 2nd century AD to become the Roman centerpiece of the city. Today, the lower part of the theater, mainly the stage, is flooded by groundwater, adding a romantic touch with its reflection in the pool. Unique are the many manumission inscriptions that have survived on the outside walls of the theater, dating from shortly after 232 BC. The freeing of slaves, which seems to have lasted for sixty years, was accomplished in the name of a god, generally Asclepius, hence the close link between the theater and its inscribed walls with the treasury of which close to nothing remains.

Behind the cavea of the theater are the remains of the Roman Baths, which are also flooded. Part of the hypocaust is being preserved, exposing some of the fire-resistant bricks used in the floor heating – always an exciting element, I’d say.

The Forum is located next to the theater and the Baths, and originally was located at the heart of the Hellenistic city. In those early days, i.e., late 2nd/1st century BC, it measured a modest 4.5 x 25 meters. Towards the 2nd century AD, the area was enlarged to the size we see today, 52 x 20 meters, but most of it still remains buried.

Further down the island, around the corner of the abovementioned buildings, are the remains of a rather imposing Nymphaeum that must have lined up with the Roman aqueduct that ran across the Vivari Channel and the valley floor to the hills from where the water was transported. Thanks to one of the billboards, I am able to locate the header tank of this aqueduct on the other side of this channel. The spring itself has not been located with certainty, but it seems to be found near Çuka e Aitoit (Eagle Mountain), a rough 12 km away. This fountain, once enhanced with statues of Dionysus and Apollo, appears to lean against the city wall, basically built in the 6th century AD but mixed with remains of earlier Roman constructions. The access to the Vivari Channel, however, was preserved as there are several entrance gates in this wall, still easily recognizable. Today, it is a very peaceful water channel where time seems to have come to a standstill. It is not certain, but this aqueduct may well have served as the first bridge across the channel, and as such, adding to Buthrotum’s status since the city was now connected with the wider Roman world. Aqueducts were very costly enterprises, and only rich cities or those sponsored by private patronage could afford them. Great cities like Athens or Corinth, for instance, didn’t have any aqueducts till the rule of Emperor Hadrian! That definitely proves how wealthy and how important Buthrotum was in its heyday!

This is also the area once occupied by the Gymnasium, but which in Byzantine times was filled by the Great Basilica and its dependencies. It is here that we find a Baptistery from the 6th century AD with an exquisite mosaic floor, covered for its own protection, which is unfortunate for us visitors. It consists of seven circular bands around the baptismal font, thus creating the figure eight, the Christian number for salvation and eternity, I am told (although I have not encountered this explanation before). The mosaics show animals (representing land), birds (representing air), and fish (representing water), in accordance once again with early Christian symbols of salvation. The entrance is flanked by two mosaics of large peacocks (symbolizing paradise and immortality) with a vine growing out of a vase (symbol for the blood of Christ).  Apparently, the roof of this Baptistery was supported by two circular rows of columns, of which only the bases remain. It is worthwhile to mention that this is the second-largest Baptistery in the Eastern Roman Empire after the Aya Sophia in Istanbul.

From the 3rd century onward, Buthrotum started to decline, and a severe earthquake destroyed large parts of the city. It shrank, and a new, smaller city wall was needed. The relief of the so-called Lion Gate on the road to Epirus, which was added in the 5th century to reduce the size of the gate, is a clear illustration. Even an untrained eye can see how this wall has been altered time and again, with steps leading nowhere and dead-end tunnels. When Buthrotum became the seat of a bishop in the 6th century, the Baptistery and Basilicas mentioned above were built, and at the same time, the city walls were reinforced.

But like its neighbors, it was attacked and sacked by the Huns. Over the following centuries, Butrint was occupied in turn by several foreign forces till it turned into a malaria-infested swamp.

The very top of today’s Butrint is crowned by a castle that was reconstructed over the ancient acropolis and now serves as a museum that badly needs some improvement or modernization, unfortunately. It houses finds from Butrint itself but also from other nearby sites, showing some pieces from the Hellenistic occupation but mostly from the prosperous Roman period.

Today, a flat barge ferries men and cars across the Channel to the Vrina plain on the other side. In Roman times, that was the location of a thriving suburb of Buthrotum where the rich and famous had their vast residences. It is here that archaeologists are looking for the remains of Titus Pomponius Atticus’ estate. Work in progress …

[Click here to see all my pictures of Butrint]