The surprise of Myndos

Nowadays, Myndos is probably best-known for its underwater causeway running from the city’s harbor to Rabbit Island, which is guarding the mainland. It is a favorite with the tourists who happily walk across the bay when the sea level is only reaching to their knees. Otherwise, the site has very little to offer with cut stones and column drums strewn around. 

These ruins make it very difficult to imagine that Myndos was once a large prosperous city. In 377 BC, King Mausolos of Halicarnassus established Caria’s independence from Persia. He rebuilt the cities of Myndos and Syangela, and moved all other Carians to Halicarnassus, which he proclaimed his new capital (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria). 

Myndos, modern Gümüșlük, had a well-sheltered harbor, well-protected against the prevailing wind. The city had a two-mile-long fortification wall and its most vulnerable southeastern section was strengthened with towers. The green granite used for its construction is the same as the one known from the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus. The quarry providing these stones has been located in Koyunbaba, some three kilometers to the north. 

Otherwise, hardly anything else remains from ancient Myndos. Some rock-cut stairs and foundations of houses are found on the hillside, but the ruins that were present in the early 19^th century have entirely disappeared. They are said to belong to a theater from the 4th century BC, a stadium with 7 columns, vaulted remains of a Bath, and a late Roman/early Byzantine basilica. 

Until the 1990s, there were more ancient stone blocks and bits of columns lying around in the village. Near a school, about 1.5 kilometers inland, some columns and Roman mosaics could be seen. Strangely, the nearby silver mines (hence the name Gümüșlük) are not mentioned in ancient sources. 

When Alexander besieged Halicarnassus in 334 BC, he speculated that Myndos would offer an easier approach. Some people in Myndos had actually suggested that they might open the city gates if he arrived under cover of darkness. Alexander took their word, but when he showed up at the gates there was no sign of surrender. Facing the betrayal, he ordered his Macedonians to attack without much result because he had not brought any rams, artillery or ladders. Myndos put up a vigorous resistance and soon was joined by Halicarnassus’ troops arriving by sea. Alexander was forced to withdraw and returned to besiege Halicarnassus. 

The capital of Caria was not taken so easily because the Persian commander Orontobates had the support of the Persian fleet. For the time being, Halicarnassus was no longer a real threat. Alexander moved on but left Ptolemy and Asander behind to finally take the city and to evict the remaining Persians. It was only a year later, in Soli, that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen!  At the same time, the town of Myndos came under Macedonian hands (see: A two-month-project to excavate the city of Soli). 

After the king’s death, Myndos was ruled by the Ptolemies from 308 until 275 BC. In 96 BC, it became independent and minted its own coins. Myndos was included in the Roman Province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. 

The harbor city was again in the news after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, after which Brutus and Cassius were expelled from Rome; they took their fleet to safety here at Myndos. By the end of 42 BC, the two murderers lost the battle against Marc Antony and Octavian in Philippi, and Myndos was given to Rhodes (see: Philippi, Macedonia’s gold and silver mines). Not for long though as the Rhodians treated Myndos harshly and unfairly and became independent again. However, it gradually lost its prosperity, although it may have survived till the 7th century AD. 

Myndos is often referred to as a Lelegian town, dating back to the Bronze Age. Except for its name, it has no connection with the classical city discussed in this article and both have a different history. The Lelegian site is nowadays called Old Myndos and lies a good three kilometers southeast of Gümüșlük.

Larger-than-life statue of Herakles discovered in Philippi

Road works in Philippi have revealed a larger-than-life statue of young Herakles.  

[Picture from Archaeology Magazine]

Generally, the god is represented at a more mature age but can be recognized by his most common attributes: a club, and a lion skin.  

The well-preserved statue of Herakles has been dated to the 2nd century AD and was reused to decorate a later building from the 8th or 9th century, probably a fountain.  

It is rather unlikely that Herakles would still be adored this late in Byzantine times. His statue must have caught the eye because of its beauty.

About decrees and multilingual inscriptions

In antiquity, news was carried by word of mouth, but legal matters and other important information were cut in stone and placed in a conspicuous spot for everyone to see. 

The majority of inscriptions are Decrees of which I can only mention a selection. 

At the Acropolis Museum, there is a stele with decrees for the construction of the temple and altar of Nike by Kallikrates, for the reorganization of the cult, and for the salary of the priestess of the goddess dated 427-424 BC (side A) and 424-423 BC (side B).

Also a stele with a series of Decrees by which the Athenians bestowed economic, commercial, and military privileges on their ally Methone in Pieria. 

It shows the goddess Athena shaking hands with perhaps Artemis, dated 430-423 BC.

Very broken but still readable is the Athenian Decree honoring Neapolis (modern Kavala) for its support in the war against Thasos and its constant commitment to her. 

In the upper right corner, we recognize the goddess Athena extending her hand towards another figure, probably the goddess Parthenos of Neapolis, dated from 410-409 BC.

A very elegant stele with a horse and an olive wreath carries an inscription in which the Athenians honored King Alcetas of Epirus for his help during their military expedition to Corcyra (modern Corfu) in 373-372 BC.

And finally, still at the Acropolis Museum, there is the long Decree of Chalkis on the island of Euboia in which the islanders were forced to swear loyalty to Athens after failing in their revolt of 446-445 BC. 

The people of Chalkis could punish their own citizens, except in cases that involved death, exile, or the loss of their rights as citizens, where the power of Athens prevailed.

The National Archaeological Museum in Athens has its own rich collection of Decrees. A good example is the honorary inscription from Piraeus dating from 347-346 BC. 

The stele honors the three sons of Leukon (depicted), king of the Cimmerian Bosporus, thanking them for services rendered to the people of Athens and allowing them to import grain free of duty.

A particular stele from 355-354BC was found near the Monument of Lysicrates in Athens. 

It honors Philiskos, son of Lykos of Sestos in the Thracian Hellespont as a public guest and benefactor of Athens. In 356 BC, Philiskos had warned the Athenians of the hostile presence of the fleet of Byzantium that threatened the city’s grain supply.

The Eleusis Museum, in turn, exhibits a decree providing for the construction of a footbridge across Lake Rheitoi on the Sacred Way from Athens to Eleusis, dated 421 BC.

Two fragments from an unidentified monument carry a Royal Decree of Alexander, which defines the limits of ‘land’, meaning the agricultural area that Philippi supervised. 

The (partial) inscription dates from 336-334 BC, just before Alexander started his campaign East. It is kept at the Museum of Philippi.

On a different level, there is a Decree sanctioning the people and city of Iasos for conspiring against King Mausolos of Caria. 

It is kept at the Louvre in Paris and dates to 370-350 BC. 

 

The Foundation Decree of Cyrene in North Africa is a covenant between the citizens of Cyrene in ca. 322 BC and those of their mother-state of Thera. 

The exact purpose is uncertain, but it is thought that the citizens of Thera, including the early settlers of 631 BC, were granted the same rights and freedoms as the Cyreneans, even though Cyrene was wealthier than Thera at the time.

Of another level is, for instance, the trilingual stele from Letoon in the Xanthos Valley found near the Temple of Apollo. It holds a public Decree authorizing the cult of the deities and establishing the provisions for its officers.
The Decree is written in Lycian, Greek, and Aramaic, which are not verbatim translations of each other. Each version contains information that is not translated into the two other tongues. The Aramaic text with 27 lines is the shortest, followed by Greek with 35 lines, and Lycian with 51 lines. Useless to point out that this stele helped to decipher the peculiar Lycian language. This unique document can be seen at the Fethiye Museum.

The story of this stele reminds us of the Rosetta Stone, which helped to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphs and Demotic script using the Greek version carved on the same stone. The text is a Decree issued by King Ptolemy V of Egypt in 196 BC and was key to deciphering the hitherto unknown hieroglyphic signs. 

Trilingual inscriptions are not isolated cases. In ancient Persia, it was current practice to leave inscriptions in three languages to make sure everyone in the vast empire would be notified: Elamite, Old Persian, and Babylonian. The best-known lines are carved on the cliff wall of Bisutun, where Darius I celebrates his victory over Gaumata and eight more pretenders to the throne in 518 BC as represented above.

The trilingual inscriptions on the Palace walls of Pasargadae, and Persepolis are mainly continuous reminders of the power of the King of Kings who ruled by the grace of Ahuramazda, repeating their title of Great King. These were defined in full by Cyrus the Great: Great King, King of Persia, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of the Four Corners of the World.

Perhaps the most remarkable panels are set in the spectacular landscape close to the fast-running mountain river and lovely waterfalls of Ganj Nameh, some five kilometers southwest of Hamadan. As is customary, each text starts by praising Ahuramazda and continues describing the lineage and deeds of Darius I on the left panel and his son Xerxes on the right. It reads: "The Great God [is] Ahuramazda, greatest of all the gods, who created the earth and the sky and the people; who made Xerxes king, and outstanding king as outstanding ruler among innumerable rulers; I [am] the great king Xerxes, king of kings, king of lands with numerous inhabitants, king of this vast kingdom with far-away territories, son of the Achaemenid monarch Darius." (see: The Bisutun relief of King Darius I).

I’d like to close with the impressive Monument of Opramoas in Rhodiapolis. He was a great benefactor who contributed lavishly to the reconstruction of most Lycian cities after the devastating earthquake of 141 AD. He must have been terribly wealthy, for it seems that every single Lycian city mentioned his name in thanks. The construction blocks of the Monument listing his good deeds were strewn over a wide area until, in 2016, archaeologists managed to sort them out and reconstruct the walls of his Monument (see: The Monument in honor of Opramoas of Rhodiapolis is taking shape).

Its text, the longest ever found in Lycia or perhaps even in all of Anatolia, contains 12 letters Opramoas exchanged with the Roman Emperors and Antoninus Pius in particular, 19 letters to the Roman Procurator, and 33 various documents related to the Lycian League. 

The reasons for leaving an inscription widely vary, and the list is endless. I stopped at a few of the most telling examples that caught my attention.

Horse racing and the horsemen

The origins of horse racing are lost in time. They may have been so common that they were not even written down in history. 

We know that the first recorded horse races occurred during the Olympic Games of 648 BC. Ironically, four-horse chariot horses competed earlier, in 680 BC. Only wealthy citizens could afford to participate in horse and chariot racing because of the high costs involved in maintaining and transporting the animals and the equipment. 

In the case of horse racing, the riding skills required a good grip and balance since the contestant rode bareback and without stirrups. No wonder the riders were selected by the owner of the horse. In other words, you had to be good in order to be chosen for the job! In return, you would be granted eternal glory and fame. 

We will remember how Philip of Macedonia, after having taken Philippi, rejoiced at the news that his horse won at the Olympic races in 356 BC, coinciding with the birth of his son, Alexander. The king also won the horse-chariot races of 352 and 348 BC. 

The prize of the winning rider was a crown of wild olive leaves taken from Olympia’s sacred tree. The chariot racers, however, would receive a red woolen ribbon they could tie around their head or wear on their upper arm as the olive crown went to the horse owner. It’s easy to imagine King Philip parading the grounds wearing the olive crown! 

Only a few names of winners of equestrian races have reached us. Recently a new name can be added to the list, that of Lukuyanus, a Roman rider who lived about 2,000 years ago. 

In his memory, a monument was erected near Konya, central Turkey. This discovery included a stone tablet with a Greek inscription explaining the sport's rules. They were in no way linked to the Olympic Games, but they may be the oldest rules ever found. 

The races took place in the hippodrome, either in the simple Greek version or in the Roman Circus that was also used for gladiator fights. 

In the case of Lukuyanus, the inscription made clear that the winning riders and horses could not participate in future competitions. The idea was that others should have a chance to win and enjoy the glory. It is also noteworthy that horses that had lost their rider could still win the race. 

Archaeological research has confirmed that horse racing was held throughout the Roman Empire, even in Babylon.

[Pictures taken from Daily Mail]

Heraklea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria

There are a great number of towns going by the name Heraclea or Herakleia throughout Turkey and Greece. Wikipedia provides an enticing list of places. 

In previous blogs, I developed Herakleia Pontus, a kingdom in Bithynia (see: Time to reconnect with Princess Amastris), Herakleia by Latmos to be found on the banks of Lake Bafa in Western Turkey, Herakleia Lyncestis in Illyria (see: King Philip, one year later – Macedonia forged by Philip II), and Heracleion-Thonis (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt).

This time, I’m focusing on Heraclea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria. The additive Sintica refers to the Sintians, a Thracian tribe that lived in the Valley of the Struma, the Greek Strymon River that runs past Amphipolis. The Sintian occupation goes back to 1300-1200 BC. Although many sources claim that the city had been founded by Cassander around 300 BC, others state that it was Philip, Alexander’s father who conquered Sintica and added Heraclea to remind the Thracians and the Macedonians that his ancestor was Heracles. The city’s layout appears to be similar to that of Philippi or Philippopolis. 

Heraclea Sintica was a major hub on the North-South traffic and connected the Aegean coast to Macedonia, Thrace, and the Balkan hinterland. In its heyday, its population may have reached 40-50,000 inhabitants! 

The city existed at least until the 6^th century AD since it was mentioned in the Byzantine tax records of Emperor Justinian the Great. 

Although the city's name was known, it took some investigation to find its location. A Latin inscription left by Emperor Galerius revealed that in response to their plea to restore their lost civil rights in 308 AD, he addressed the local citizens as those of Heraclea Sintica. 

Serious and steady excavations in Heraclea Sintica are pretty recent and seem to have started in 2007. 

By 2016, an imposing Basilica was unearthed, measuring 22 x 16 meters with walls rising five meters tall, next to other sanctuaries and shops. An older Basilica from the 4th century BC was discovered a year earlier. A striking find happened in 2017 when a Roman gold necklace came to light. It has been dated to the 4^th century AD and may have been made by craftsmen in Rome. 

In 2018, a headless Roman statue from ca. 100 AD was found underneath the stairs of the Forum. The statue represents a magistrate and was apparently carefully buried four meters deep. More recently, a female head was discovered in the eastern corner of the Forum. This head carries traces of ocher paint, indicating that the woman was blond. In ancient times, blond hair symbolized sin. This beautiful marble seems to date to the same time as the headless man. It is too early to draw any conclusion about the reason for these careful burial rites, as the site has not been entirely investigated yet. Intriguingly, both discoveries were made underneath buildings of later periods. Archaeologists suppose that these respectful funerals could have had a ritual meaning in antiquity – and may have been meant as protection from calamities or barbarian attacks. 

More questions remain unsolved, like the bone needle whose end was wrapped in a thin gold sheet. It must have belonged to a woman of some importance who lived in Heraclea Sintica in the 2^nd century AD. 

Undoubtedly, many more buildings and artifacts are still hidden from view, awaiting to be uncovered.

Amphipolis beyond the Kasta Hill

Much ink has been spilled on the promising excavations of Kasta Hill at a short distance from the town of Amphipolis proper. For that reason, the importance of this city harbor has been seriously neglected. 

Amphipolis was an Athenian colony founded in the 5th century BC. It was surrounded by a 7.5-kilometer-long wall, probably dating from the Classical Period, but the date has not been confirmed yet. It would be interesting though, to know whether Philip II had attacked it in 356 BC when he ousted the Athenians in power. Amphipolis was key to the king’s conquest because it sat on the mouth of the Strymon River which gave him access to the mines of Crenides (later renamed Philippi) and opened up the trading route with Thracia (see: Macedonia’s gold and silver mines today). 

[Picture from Structurae.net]

When Alexander set out from Pella towards Asia in 334 BC, he crossed the bridge of Amphipolis (see: Bridge of Amphipolis used by Alexander), which was constructed at some time between 600 and 550 BC and was first mentioned in history during the Peloponnese War of 422 BC. 

The city has a lot to tell us, as the occasional photographic and on-site research reveals. However, the archaeologists seek financial support to establish what Amphipolis looked like in the days of Alexander and how it changed by the time Philip V died here in 179 BC. So far, it has been recorded that the city possessed a well-preserved Gymnasium and the remains of a Hellenistic house with frescoed walls. 

At present, special attention is given to the Acropolis of Amphipolis located within sight of Kasta Hill. Scholars tell us that it becomes easy to understand the city's importance as this location gave its citizens full control over the Strymon River, the gateway to the sea and Crenides, and the overland route into Thracia.

In the past two years, archaeologists have concentrated on the Acropolis, whose inner walls were exposed in the 1960s and 1970s. Otherwise, there is a lot of architectural debris lying around. At the same time, other parts have been reused by the Romans to rebuild the city’s fortifications. The same applied to the Christians when they built their monuments. These public buildings stand on top of older layers, and the current five-year plan (2019-2023) will concentrate on the pre-Christian Acropolis. 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Aerial view of the Basilica C with the Hellenistic building below it. [Credit: Kathimerini]

The bottom line is that we still need more patience before establishing a solid link with Alexander in the early days of his kingship.

Work in progress at the site of Philippi

As announced in 2018 (see: Improving the archaeological site of Philippi), the disaffected asphalt road in Philippi  that separated the theater and Paul’s prison in the older part from the Byzantine churches and the Roman houses in the lower section has been removed. 

[Credit ANA-NPA]

Excavations on that portion of Philippi have not started yet but a geophysical survey was carried out providing the necessary information on where to dig. It appears that traces of a number of hitherto unknown public buildings have been found, including vertical roads that once connected the theater with the ancient Via Egnatia. 

In the present state, archaeologists hope to find galleries and staircases that connect both parts of the city, including objects of daily use. 

The archaeologists expect to change the overall picture of Philippi once the new entrance at the so-called Gate of Neapolis at the junction of the car park and the disaffected asphalt road is completed. To this effect, the existing concrete bridge will be demolished and the adjacent city walls restored.

Once this is done, future visitors will be able to access the ancient city over a comfortable cobblestone pathway running about one meter above the remains of the Via Egnatia. This road will lead them to the staircase descending to the Octagon with its precious floor mosaics. 

At present, the three-aisled Basilica B from 550 AD is undergoing a thorough restoration. The marble arches will be reinforced and a first attempt will be made to reconstruct the Basilica’s interior which was destroyed when the dome collapsed during its construction. In the process, the delicate capitals of the columns will be consolidated.

Memorable clash at Mount Haemus

Once his succession to the throne was secured and he had taken care of his father’s funeral, all Alexander wanted was to start his Asian campaign. But having learned that the Triballi and the Thracians were on the warpath he had no other option than to change his plans.

In spring 335 BC, he marched to Mount Orbelus, crossed the Nestos River to reach Mount Haemus, apparently ten days after he had left from Philippi.

Mount Haemus is the modern Balkan Mountain Range which is a 700 km-long spine running east-west through Bulgaria. It is here that the Thracians awaited the Macedonians, holding the major thoroughfare from Philippopolis to the north. This pass is better known by its modern appellation, the Shipka Pass situated at an elevation of 1150 meters. Few people in Bulgaria are aware of Alexander’s daring confrontation but rather remember the pass for the more recent battle they fought with the help of the Russians against the Ottoman Empire in 1877-78. In the 20^th century, an ugly monument was erected on this spot to commemorate the liberation of Bulgaria. The Bulgarian-Orthodox Church with its gold-covered onion shaped steeples is a far nicer marker to remember the soldiers who died for their country. 

Alexander’s encounter with the determined Thracians was one of his masterminded confrontations. A large enemy force was awaiting him at the top of the narrows. The Thracians had hauled wagons up the pass with the intention to let them thunder down on the advancing Macedonians as soon as they were within reach. Alexander assessed the situation immediately and issued orders to the phalanx to open up their ranks to let the wagons run through. In places where there was not enough space for the soldiers to step aside, they were instructed to lie down on the ground and lock their shields above their head. As a result, the Thracian wagons hardly caused any damage as they bolted downhill. 

Imagine how that went down with the troops this early in Alexander’s generalship! It is notable that the army obeyed his orders to the letter, showing that they trusted their new king and commander – a matter of detail, but a very important one! In the end, 1,500 Thracians were killed; the women and children were sent to Macedonia to be sold as slaves.

This episode is so characteristic for Alexander and even more telling when you consider what happens a few years later when he is confronting the Persian King Darius at the Battlefield of Gaugamela. Facing the Scythian chariots with the one meter long blades extending on each side able to mow away the enemy, he gave his troops the exact same order to let the carts run through the ranks with optimal result. Just remember that the very idea was born only one year into his kingship here in these Balkan forests. 

The Mud Baths of Crenides

As people lived much closer to nature, thermal baths in antiquity belonged to everyday life rather than to plush spa resorts as we know them today. Such spots are mentioned throughout history as a matter of fact and are often overlooked.

This is the case of Crenides, the city that was conquered by Philip of Macedonia who renamed it Philippi. Inevitably all attention goes to the latter and the hot springs are ignored although they were known to Aristotle and Xenophon.

[Picture from WikiHow]

However, today, Crenides (or Krinides) is a thermal city that attracts tourists to enjoy its curative waters and therapeutic clay. The spring water has a pleasant temperature of 29 degrees Celsius and is used in hydrotherapy for ailments of the musculoskeletal system and as mineral drinking water to treat gastrointestinal and urinary problems.

What is more, the city also boasts of its clay therapy that is adequately housed in a late Byzantine building used as a Turkish Bath. The mud therapy results from a balanced mix of argil, a local plant, and hot mineral water. It is especially indicated in cases of autoimmune diseases, skin problems, and rheumatism.

It is tempting to imagine King Philip soaking in this hot clay to relieve the pain in his gammy leg and the sore scars of war he suffered although he strongly believed that bathing was only done in cold water. Maybe even Alexander and his companions in spite of this stoic Macedonian rule about cold water enjoyed a pleasant halt at the springs when heading for Thracia or on the way back, who knows…