A painted Graeco-Persian Sarcophagus

The existence of a Graeco-Persian sarcophagus seems quite unique. In any case, it is the first time I come across such an example. The find is not new and dates from 1998 when the grave was discovered inside a circular vaulted tomb in Çan, halfway between Troy and Dascylium in northwest Turkey. 

[Picture of hunting scene by Dan Diffendale from Wikipedia]

The sarcophagus fits tightly inside the chamber that has a diameter of 3.70 meters. It could be dated between 400 and 375 BC and attributed to an Anatolian dynast from Hellespontine Phrygia that belonged to Persia. 

Let us not forget that Asia Minor had been very much involved in the Graeco-Persian Wars that raged between the Achaemenid Empire and several Greek city-states from 499 to 449 BC. From then onwards, the Persians put trusted satraps at the head of these western provinces in order to rule in their name. This structure was still in place when Alexander the Great arrived in 334 BC and conquered Dascylium, the capital of Hellespontine Phrygia (see: Heading for Dascylium and Sardes). 

The alternating occupation of Hellespontine Phrygia by Persians and Greeks has obviously influenced local customs as well as the arts, as illustrated in the present tomb. 

The marble sarcophagus was damaged by illegal diggers who used a bulldozer to gain access to the tomb. Amazingly, most of the paint on the reliefs on the sarcophagus has survived. A wide range of colors have been identified: red, purple, ochre, blue, and green; also some black that was often mixed with red for shading. 

The reliefs have a lot to tell. The longest side is decorated with two hunting scenes separated by a leafless tree. To the left, we see a stag hunt on a blue background, and to the right a boar hunting scene on a green background suggesting a forest. The hunter wears pants, a long-sleeved red tunic, and a light ochre sleeved cloak. His chest is covered with a leather ochre-colored breastplate. The saddle blanket is also ochre with a thick red border. 

[Picture of combat scene by Dan Diffendale from Wikipedia]

The short side of the sarcophagus represents a battle scene with a warrior on horseback defined as an Anatolian dynast spearing a Greek soldier. As suggested by his armory the victim belongs to the light infantry. The cavalryman is accompanied by his henchman, probably a Greek mercenary in his service. Here, the rider wears pants, a long-sleeved pink tunic under his red cuirass with large shoulder pieces. His red helmet is probably made of leather. His cuirass has two rows of pteryges (a defensive skirt of leather strips attached to the waists to protect the hips and thighs). The upper row is white, and the lower row shows alternating red and white strips. The other two sides of the sarcophagus were not decorated. 

No Lycian tomb displays this type of armor and no other example of this kind of relief is known in Asia Minor. 

Further research has revealed that this iconography was customary in the Near East and Asia Minor in particular at that time. The owner of the tomb could very well be Pharnabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, who fought against the Greeks on several occasions. Best-known is his battle against Agesilaos who attacked Hellespontine Phrygia in 395 BC. 

Based on the bones found inside the sarcophagus, archaeologists could determine that the body belonged to a strongly built man about 170-175 cm tall, who died when he was 25-28 years old. He probably fell from his horse during combat and broke many limbs. He survived the accident for several years although he was seriously crippled and in much pain, as the bones did not align properly. 

This rare sarcophagus is exhibited in the new Museum of Troy.

Notion in Asia Minor

In antiquity, the coast of Asia Minor was a string of famous and powerful cities and towns, each with its own history. Some are only slowly revealing their presence and their treasures. 

One such relic is Notion, located roughly 50 kilometers from Izmir. One day, driving back from Izmir to Ephesos, I skirted the peninsula's entire south coast, passing cities like Teos and Claros. However, my intention was to stop at Clazomena, Colophon, and Notion. Life is such that it deviates us from our initial plan. It so happened that I frequently stopped to take in the vistas leading me from promontories into deep bays - a landscape from the beginning of time, I thought. As a result, I never made it to Notion … 

[Picture from Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan]

I may not have missed much because the first archaeological surveys started in 2014. Mapping Notion revealed a city laid out conform to the Hippodamian plan sitting on two promontories overlooking the Aegean Sea. Inside the remains of sturdy fortification walls, research exposed beside the ever-present Agora, a Theater, a Bouleuterion, a Heroon, a Temple of Athena, and a large housing district. Notion flourished from the 2^nd century BC until the 1^st century AD, after which it was abandoned in favor of Ephesos which became the major center of commerce in Roman times. 

The city’s origin goes back to at least the 6^th century BC when it was part of the Persian Empire like the rest of Asia Minor. Inevitably, it got involved in the Graeco-Persian Wars of the 5^th and 4^th centuries BC and was conquered in turn by Athens and Persia. 

During those uncertain times, it is thought that Notion was occupied and/or defended by “barbarian” mercenaries. This is documented through the hoard of Persian gold darics found under the floor of one of the houses. The coins were probably buried there to be recovered later on. The daric with its particular face featuring the figure of a kneeling archer was the equivalent of a month’s pay for a mercenary foot soldier. Based on their style, these darics were probably minted during the 5^th century BC in Sardes, which lies about 100 kilometers to the north. 

Darics rarely surface in Greek or Hellenistic cities and to find such a collection buried in a jar is astonishing. 

I remember seeing my first Darics in Sicily at The Medagliere, the strong room of the Archaeological Museum in Syracuse. It was quite a shock because I knew the coins only from pictures and was not expecting to find them here. On the other hand, their presence raised the question of how they had reached Sicily – probably carried west by early colonists from mainland Greece who settled in Magna Graecia. 

Life surely is full of surprises.

Surprising city of Tripolis in Turkey

Tripolis can be found some 20 kilometers from the famous site of Pamukkale and the ancient city of Hierapolis. Its name meaning three cities is due to its location, i.e., at the crossroads of Phrygia, Lydia, and Caria, on the northern bank of the Meander River. From here, it was a convenient hub to reach Sardes, Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir), and Laodicea. 

Although Tripolis existed in Hellenistic times, it reached its peak in the 2^nd century AD as testified by the remains we find here today. 

The city could be entered by two gates, the Gate of Hierapolis on the southern side and the Gate of Philadelphia at the western end.

[Picture from Female Fearless Travels]

Excavations have exposed a straight colonnaded street of ten meters wide and 450 meters long that runs east-west through the city. It was paved with travertine slabs. At the intersection of the main streets, a Nymphaeum was discovered. This Orpheus Fountain rested on a marble floor, and its walls were covered with onyx and white marble. The water came from a cistern east of the street. 

The colonnaded street is the most prominent element in Tripolis and is for now the main attraction. Pending further digs, several monuments from the 2^nd century AD have been identified, such as two Agoras, one of which borders the northern side of the street, and two Baths, the Great Thermae near the western entrance to the city, and the Theater Thermae close to the theater. The theater is estimated to seat 8,000 people. Also, the Stadium could be located just outside the city walls and measures 256x66 meters. The Bouleuterion of 64x44 meters stands in the center of Tripolis, and only part of its walls are visible. 

[Orpheus Fountain from Turkish Archeo News]

It is remarkable, however, to discover an indoor bazaar in excellent condition since it remained buried for centuries. This structure is a unique example so far in the Mediterranean. 

The fate of Tripolis was sealed after repeated earthquakes, the most severe one happening in 494 AD.  

A visit to Tripolis sounds rather inviting. The colonnaded street is very promising, but sadly little is known of the city’s role in history despite its early origin dating to the 4^th millennium BC.

With a population of nearly 20,000 in the 2^nd century AD, I assume an emperor like Hadrian would be mentioned as he stayed in nearby Hierapolis in 129 AD. This also applies to Caracalla in 215 AD. I would not be surprised if during Hellenistic times members of the Seleucid dynasty spent time in Tripolis. Apparently, nothing of the kind has transpired from the excavations yet. It is like visiting a skeleton without a soul …

The Attalids, rulers of Pergamon

The Attalid Dynasty of Pergamon started with Philetairos in 282 BC, roughly fifty years after the death of Alexander. 

It remains difficult to imagine the wealth Alexander had accumulated from his conquest of Asia.  The rise of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties can hardly be compared to that of Lysimachos, who did not draw the best cards. The War of the Diadochi was a very intricate and complex bickering and conniving from which all parties did not profit equally. However, Lysimachos put his share of the booty to good use and his trusted treasury keeper, Philetairos, did the same giving Pergamon the jump start it needed.

The starting date of the Pergamon Dynasty is much later than for the empires of  Seleucos in 312 BC, and Ptolemy in 305 BC founded at the end of the War of the Diadochy. 

Philetairos was a eunuch who had served under Antigonus Monophtalmos. In 302 BC he deserted him to join Lysimachos, the king of Northwest Asia Minor. At the death of Antigonus, Lysimachos rewarded Philetairos for his loyalty by putting him in charge of his treasury (inherited from Alexander) in Pergamon. 

But when Lysimachos, upon the instigation of his wife, murdered his only son, Agathocles, Philetairos joined Seleucos I. Soon afterwards, Seleucos’ forces murdered Lysimachos leaving Philetairos to rule Pergamon until 263 BC. Seleucos granted him great autonomy, which enabled him to expand his territory. Unable to have children of his own, Philetairos had adopted his nephew, the future Eumenes I, who would succeed him in 263 BC. 

One year into his kingship, Eumenes defeated the Seleucid King Antiochus near Sardes, which enabled him to create an independent city-state of Pergamon. Eumenes did not have children either and the throne went to his nephew and cousin, Attalus, who went down into history as Attalus I Soter. Attalus ruled from 241 to 197 BC and many historians still consider him as the founder of the Attalid Dynasty, with Pergamon as its capital. 

The reign of Attalus I was all but peaceful. The Seleucids had lost power over Lysimachos' territories of Pergamon, Bithynia, Nicomedia, and Cappadocia, which gained their independence. Attalus expanded his territory but lost much of it to Seleucos II later on. However, he managed to save Pergamon from the attacks of the Galatians on his northern border and to establish friendly relations with the Romans. That’s how he got involved in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which opposed the weakening kingdom of Macedonia to Rome, as an ally of Pergamon. Attalus suffered a stroke during peace negotiations in Thebes and was brought back to Pergamon, where he died in 197 BC. 

Eumenes II took over where his father left off but mingling in the affairs of the Seleucids in Syria did not sit well with the Senate of Rome. No reason for Eumenes to be distracted from carrying out his own large expansion program in Pergamon, where he built the unique Great Altar and the massive Library, second only to that of Alexandria. The Romans resented the power and independence Eumenes displayed, which in their eyes reduced their own sphere of influence in Asia Minor. Sadly, although still in his early sixties, Eumenes’ health began to deteriorate, and he appointed his brother Attalus II as a co-ruler. One year later, in 159 BC, Eumenes died. His own son was still an infant, and consequently, Attalus II, who conveniently married his widow, became the new king. He also adopted his brother’s young son, who was to become the future Attalus III. 

Attalus II continued Eumenes’ building projects in Pergamon, this time including the Palace. He also funded the construction of a new temple to Hera Basileia between the lower Agora and the Gymnasium. 

He was familiar with the political situation he inherited. He had no real enemies and was careful to recognize the authority of Rome. Instead of going to war, Attalus II expanded his influence by spending lavish amounts of money on prestige projects. For instance, he contributed to the construction of a splendid Stoa in the Agora of Athens, at the foot of the Acropolis. This is the Stoa of Attalus II, which was restored/ reconstructed by the American School of Classical Studies in the early 1950s. Another Stoa carrying his name was built in Termessos next to the Corinthian temple.

As always, all kinds of taxes were raised to pay for these grand expenses, but Attalus equally improved trade in his kingdom, building markets and safe harbors. He certainly needed reliable access to a harbor, and Attalus attempted to subdue Side. In the wake of this failed attempt, he added part of Pamphylia to his kingdom, where he founded an entirely new port. He named it Attaleia, after himself, i.e., modern Antalya. Attalus II died at the blessed age of 81 or 82 in 138 BC. 

His successor was his nephew and adopted son, Attalus III. However, the new king was not interested in his kingship or in Pergamon. No wonder that he was rather unpopular among his citizens. When he died five years later of disease, he bequeathed Pergamon to Rome, which made it the capital of their Provincia Asia.

Although there may have been one last pretender to the throne, a supposed illegitimate son of Eumenes II, the Attalid Dynasty came to an abrupt end in 133 BC. 

In hardly 150 years, the Attalids had built one of the greatest Hellenistic centers for culture and art, mainly under the reigns of Eumenes II and Attalus II, which still intrigues us.

The end of Pergamon was all but glorious. After being hit by a severe earthquake in 262 AD, its decline was set in motion. The Muslims sacked what remained standing during their raid of 663 AD. More setbacks followed after the conquests by the Byzantine Empire and around 1300 AD by the Ottoman Empire. Slowly, the majestic site deteriorated to the point it was abandoned and forgotten until the first explorers of the 18^th and 19^th centuries rediscovered Pergamon.

Does age matter?

Writing about Alexander over the years, I have been handling chronological dates for his whereabouts in the correct time frame. There is, however, another approach to consider and that is Alexander’s age. 

We know he became king at the age of twenty and started his invasion of Asia at the age of twenty-two. He died a month short of his 33^rd birthday. All his marches, sieges, battles, and fighting are condensed within this last period of roughly ten years. 

A comparison with any modern monarchy is impossible because there are hardly any kings left and they no longer go to war at the head of their army. To compare Alexander with young men his age today is out of the question also simply because life and the circumstances of living are too far apart. 

Alexander has been taught by Aristotle but again this kind of education cannot be identified with the teaching of a young man in our modern world. I believe that even Philip, although he intended to do what was best for his son, underestimated the vastness of Aristotle’s knowledge. Alexander was meant to rise above Philip because he understood how to draw from Aristotle’s vast database (to use modern terminology) and merge it expertly with his innate infallible instinct - his genius. 

However, Philip may well have realized the potential of his 16-year-old son when he entrusted him with the seal of Macedonia while campaigning against Byzantium. The young prince honored his assignment as Regent by successfully putting down the Maedi revolt on the country’s northern border. 

Two years later, Philip put his son in command of his cavalry at the Battle of Chaironeia. Alexander did more than his share and annihilated the entire Theban Band, all three hundred of them! 

We don’t know how much time the young prince spent among the soldiers growing up in Pella, but I think it is safe to assume it was a lot. Leading the small contingent against the Maedi and the cavalry in Chaironeia speaks volumes. An army has that instinctive flair to recognize a true leader, one they can and will trust. 

This trust would only grow when Alexander became king after his father was murdered. In the next two years, he successfully led his troops against the Illyrians and the Thracians to secure his northern borders, sacked the city of Thebes in retribution for its betrayal, and confirmed his position as Hegemon of Greece as per the Treaty of Corinth. Alexander could never have contemplated his campaign in Asia without the full trust and commitment of his army. 

He crossed the Hellespont shortly before his 22^nd birthday and fought the Persian army for the first time at the Granicus River. Later that summer, he marched to Sardes and took Ephesos, Priene, Miletus, Didyma, and Halicarnassus. Alexander spent the following winter in Lycia, after which he conquered Phaselis and Perge. 

When he was 23 years old, he headed north to Sagalassos and from there to Gordion, where he cut the knot. Crossing Cappadocia, he returned to the shores of the Mediterranean. At Tarsus, he fell sick with a fever, which incapacitated him for several weeks. By the end of the year, he was engaged in the Battle of Issus, his first personal confrontation with King Darius. 

In two years, Alexander fought two major battles (see: The Battle of the Granicus and The Battle of Issus, where Alexander and Darius faced each other for the first time), besieged two cities, Miletus and Halicarnassus, and occupied all the major ports in Asia Minor. In our modern world, this means that he crossed all of Turkey. 

At the age of 24, he laid siege to two more cities, Tyre (building a mole in the process) and Gaza. His reception in Egypt was that of a liberator, and he was soon acclaimed as their new Pharaoh - a title that automatically made him a god in the eyes of the Egyptians. At the western end of the Nile Delta, he founded his first Alexandria, a city that still exists and prospers today! 

Many more sieges and battles were to follow in Central Asia and India. We almost take them for granted, despite that every siege and every battle came with its own technicalities and challenges. Alexander faced many hardships as he traveled through deserts, waded through countless rivers, and crossed mountains as high as those of the Hindu Kush! 

The three years Alexander spent in Sogdiana and Bactria, from his 27^th to his 30^th birthday, were an uninterrupted succession of skirmishes and fights in guerrilla wars he was totally unfamiliar with. The events culminated with his victory at the Battle of the Hydaspes against the Indian King Porus. By then, he and his men had covered some 28,000 kilometers, creating many new Alexandrias in the process. 

Although Alexander is usually depicted sitting on his horse, we have to keep in mind that he moved at the pace of his foot soldiers. Riding bareback was not comfortable, not for the rider and not for the horse (see: No saddles and no stirrups for Alexander’s cavalry). 

It is impossible to imagine anyone covering such a distance on foot. It would imply walking an average of 2,800 kilometers a year, ten years in a row! Let us keep in mind that many of his troops were veterans of his father’s days, men in their fifties, sixties, and even seventies! Not a leisurely trip for the fainthearted. 

Speaking of walking: how many pairs of shoes, boots, and sandals would the Macedonians have worn out? Providing new ones for some 40,000 men or more would have implied production on an industrial scale! Maybe we should believe the sources suggesting that the soldiers fought and walked sections of the route barefoot?

Sadly, Alexander died far too young, and so did Hephaistion, but men like Ptolemy and Seleucos lived to the ages of 84 and 77, respectively. Age clearly is not everything!

Looting, looting and more looting

Treasure hunters are of all times, from the Assyrians and Egyptians to the Greek, Roman, or Byzantine times. They don’t care about the tombs, the churches, or city remains as their only concern is to find valuable artifacts, mostly gold objects. These treasure hunters ignore that their finds are out of context forever. Archaeologists arriving on the site after the robbery generally miss too many pieces to recreate what is lost. 

Turkish authorities have assessed that curfews and lock downs to prevent the spread of Covid have encouraged both professional and amateur looters to carry out illegal digs all over the country. 

Turkey is extremely rich in archaeological sites, many of which have not been excavated yet. It is unfortunate to hear the Ministry of Culture and Tourism confirm that during the past two years, some 3,365 illegal excavations occurred. Of those, only 26 cases were caught red-handed.  

It is hard to imagine people able to move across the country unnoticed by local authorities. As reported by an archaeologist, the looters used generators, hammer drills, and other pieces of machinery. The noise made by such equipment is heard from afar, especially in the countryside. Still, the treasure hunters could work unnoticed by local authorities? 

Monumental tombs around the ancient site of Sardes (see: Sardes, the capital of ancient Lydia and a key-city for Alexander’s Successors) have been destroyed forever. Other examples of looting abound, from a thousand-year-old sarcophagus from the Byzantine or Seljuk time to the destruction and robbing of Armenian churches in search of gold mainly. It remains challenging to trace the smuggling route of the artifacts abroad. 

The pandemic has caused the loss of human life all over the country, but nobody could expect this surge of illegal hunters, causing another loss to the history of humankind. 

Excavations at Dascylium

We’ll remember that the city was the capital of Hellespontine Phrygia, which Alexander took after the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC (see: Heading for Dascylium and Sardes). 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network - Credit: Anadolou Agency]

This year, archaeologists recovered a relief from the 5th century BC, i.e., well before Alexander’s conquest, showing Greek soldiers trampled by Persian warhorses probably referring to one of the Graeco-Persian wars. They assume that the artist's purpose was not to glorify either army but to create a work of propaganda.

Unfortunately, the Archaeology News Network doesn’t tell us what led them to this conclusion. The pictures they released are not too clear as they show the team cleaning parts of the reliefs rather than the scene itself.

During their excavations, the archaeologists also exposed sections of a stone and mudbrick wall. This is a rare find from Phrygian times, i.e., the 8th century BC. The remaining wall is 40 meters long, five meters thick, and four meters high. However, because the mudbrick sections have not survived, the original height is estimated at seven or eight meters.

Aigai in Asia Minor

The name Aigai immediately brings the city in Macedonia to mind, which is also spelled Aegae. It seems, however, that there is another Aigai in the province of Manisa in Western Turkey.

[Picture from Inspirock - photo by Selim Rutbil]

The city is located on the valley that runs from Magnesia (modern Manisa) to Elaia, the ancient port of Pergamon. Aigai has been mentioned by Herodotus but had no great power. Although Alexander marched through the area, his presence has not been recorded either. His successor Seleucos is, however, known to have been honored with divine attributes in Aigai. During the later reign of Eumenes I, Aigai fell under the rule of the Attalids of Pergamon. It seems that the city’s layout closely resembles that of Pergamon, which is not surprising based on their common historical background. In the second century BC, Aigai was entirely rebuilt, and in 133 BC, it became part of the Roman Empire.

In 17 AD, the region was hit by a severe earthquake, and Tacitus tells us how twelve cities were destroyed overnight. Among the affected towns, Sardes and Magnesia are mentioned but also Aigai. In any case, Emperor Tiberius contributed to their reconstruction. 

So far, the buildings exposed by the archaeologists all date back to that period, just after the mid-2^nd century AD. Excavations have revealed a 1.5 km long city wall. On the eastern side of Aigai, a three-story high indoor market has been uncovered. Its walls still stand up to 11 meters tall over a length of 82 meters. The upper floor of this overall Hellenistic building was renovated in Roman times. A Roman Macellum used by butchers and fishermen alike has also been excavated. The inside floor was made of stones placed on lime mortar to hold the water in which the fish could be stored safely. Also, two separate channels were unearthed, one that carried fresh water inside and one that transported the waste water outside.

[Picture from Inspirock - photo by Oran Onal]

Several other buildings have been identified as well, like the Agora and its west Stoa, a theater, a Bouleuterion, a Stadium, a Gymnasium, and three temples, one of which has been identified as belonging to Demeter. They all date back to the mid-2^nd century AD. Aigai was eventually abandoned in the 3^rd century AD.

About five kilometers outside the city proper, the remains of a sanctuary dedicated to Apollo were found. It stood on the banks of the river that ran around the ruins. It can easily be spotted because three monolithic columns and the six-meter-high cella walls are still standing. It has been dated to the 1^st century BC.

The unique marble from Thasos

The site of Alyki is to be found at the southern end of the island of Thasos, and obviously, its marble quarries are better known as Thasos marble.

Originally, Thasos was settled by the Phoenicians who exploited the island’s rich gold mines. Yet, by the 7^th century BC the Greeks from Paros coveted the gold and also were interested in the white marble that was largely available. This soft snow-white material was exported throughout antiquity and has been found in places like the nearby island of Samothrace, in Pergamon, Sardes, and Ephesos in Asia Minor, in southern Greece, and in Ostia in Italy. The Romans of the 1^st century BC developed a particular fondness for this pure white marble that lasted until the 3^rd century AD. The precious material has been retrieved as far away as Germania as it was shipped over the Black Sea to the mouth of the Danube where it was transferred on flat-bottom vessels that sailed upstream all the way to the Rhine.

In Alyki, the marble was roughly quarried and the semi-finished columns, bases, capitals, or blocks for statues and the like were loaded onto the ships anchored in the nearby harbor. It served for the construction of temples, early Christian churches, and important official buildings.

Floor tiles of Alyki marble were held in high esteem from the 5th century onward and are still highly appreciated today because they possess the unique quality to reflect the sun. Recently, the Grand Mosque of Mecca has been repaved with these heat-resistant slabs of 100 x 40 x 5 centimeters. This floor maintains the same temperature by day and by night, meaning that the pilgrims can move bare-footed without being bothered by the heat.

Even today, Thasos yields three types of marble: Extra White, Snow White, and Pure White, as it is remarkably pure in color with no dark veins or shades. It is famous for its translucent quality and is praised worldwide, being exported to countries like Syria, Egypt, and even Iran. 

Whoever sets out to visit these quarries will automatically pass through a number of shrines dating back to the 7^th-5^th century BC, dedicated to the twins Castor and Pollux and to Apollo, who were worshiped by sailors anchoring in the idyllic harbor. The stones from these buildings were largely reused by the early Christians who built two basilicas on top of the ancient temples. There is also a fragmented pillar with a Greek inscription and a large Roman sarcophagus left in situ. Two more quarries from the Roman and Proto-Byzantine era can be spotted close to the waterfront.

In the Footsteps of a World-Changer

Another enticing title for the tour which Peter Sommer Travel's offers to rub shoulders with Alexander the Great!

Most of us who are interested in the ancient world eventually come to look in detail at its cultures, religion, politics and art. But for a lot of us, what first grabbed us were the stories. Stories of individuals who lived extraordinary lives and had an impact out of all proportion to their lifespan. In this tour, you travel with such an individual, and experience the world they changed forever.

Alexander’s reign was epic in so many ways – the height of his ambition in taking on the mightiest empire in the world, his personal heroism in some of the most vividly-described, fiercest battles of the epoch, his deliberate emulation of the heroes and in the scale of the transformation his reign brought to the whole Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. It’s at the beginning of that reign that some of the most powerful tales come: the spear thrown to claim the land of Asia, the visit to the temple at Troy to obtain Achilles’ shield, the brutal charge at the Granicus which saw Alexander’s nearly-lost life saved by brave Cleitus – a debt tragically betrayed in a tent in central Asia years later. This is the glittering, dynamic curtain-raiser to a journey that would darken later on, beset by demons and difficulties.

Here you get to visit the stupendous sites of the early days of this almost unbelievable turning point in history, to feel a connection with the young hero-king. Contemporaries often set this up as the latest in a clash of civilisations, East versus West. Here you’ll see the deeper story – how the Greeks and their neighbours met and fought - or embraced: unsurpassed Istanbul-Constantinople, queen of Greek Christian civilisation bridging east and west, lofty, breath-taking Sardis from whose wealthy kings the early Greeks took so many ideas, and proud Bodrum, the ancient Halicarnassus that gave the world the insatiable explorer of other worlds, Herodotus, and the great Mausoleum, the perfect blending of Greek and eastern ideas. And behind and before all, there’s Troy – the centre and origin of so much of what it means to be Greek, or western, but whose story also fittingly is about what it means to be human, whatever side you’re on. With a fine new museum housing the treasures of its long and fabled, there’s never been a better time to go – and no better experts to go with. Alexander and Troy began our journey, too. In this inspiring tour, you’ll stand shoulder to shoulder with Alexander and, like him, discover and fall in love with a rich mix of Greek and eastern civilisations. Alexander followed his yearning to find a wider world. Not a bad idea. Paul’s written about the most modern phase of this encounter here, Agamemnon returns to Troy.  29th Apr - 10th May 2019 Read More