The tomb of Alexander the Great

The tales about the tomb of Alexander are countless, varying from pure myth and wishful thinking to serious studies and well-documented analysis. 

In August 2021, I posted a summary of what was known so far: Endless fuss over the tomb of Alexander the Great. Here, I included the name of Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi, who assumed that the king’s mummy was transferred to Siwah as Ptolemy fulfilled Alexander’s wish. In her theory, she ignored the recorded visits of the Roman emperors to Alexander's tomb in Alexandria. 

Liana Souvaltzi started excavating the Temple of Amon-Ra in Siwah in 1989, but in 1995, the Greek and Egyptian governments suddenly blocked her permit without explanation. 

[Reconstruction of what the monument in the Siwa Oasis would have once looked like. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

In my mind, her story was one of many, like the one I posted in October 2024:  Another pertinent theory about Alexander’s Tomb that was another dead-end road.

It now transpires that I missed Liana Souvaltzi's plea published in December 2014, also in Ancient Origins, upon their invitation. The full story can be read in this article. I'm quoting a few of the key arguments hereafter, in italics.

The archaeological site is 15 kilometers west of the Ammon Temple, which is in the town of Siwa. The area where the tomb is located is named El Maraki. The tomb complex covers an enormous area of 12,000 square meters, of which 5,000 square meters were excavated.

From the size of the tomb itself, which is 51m long and has an outer width of 10.25m, it is obvious that it could only have been destined for use as a burial monument for the worship of a very important person, such as a king. The tomb sits on a rock, underneath which lies an enormous gold mine, the first found in the western desert. It consists of an entrance, corridor, and three chambers.

It is a good argumentation and certainly raises questions about the presence of Greek architectural elements in Siwah and the size/purpose of the monument. A link with Alexander is not impossible. However, although the monument she defined as a tomb was colossal, it contained no actual tomb or sarcophagus to prove Alexander's presence. 

[Cleaning up the corridor leading to the tomb. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

There were, however, three inscriptions referring to Alexander:

Finally, we found three different honorary inscriptions written in Greek uppercase letters. The first inscription could be dated from its text to between 290 and 284 BC. The first line of the inscription bore the name ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ΑΜΜΩΝΟΣ ΡΑ (ALEXANDER AMMON RA).

The second inscription can be dated between 108 and 115 BC and is an honorary inscription and was placed by the Emperor Traianus in honour of Alexander, whom he admired and respected as a god.

The third inscription is a fragment which indicates the number of the inhabitants of the oasis and the army, which was a part of the military forces assigned to guard the royal tomb of Alexander the Great.

The discovery of these inscriptions and their meanings was announced in the course of the Italian – Egyptian Congress in Rome on 15 November 1995.

In line with the earlier and later theories that circulate on the tomb of Alexander and its whereabouts, there is the thorough destruction of this Siwah Tomb. The floors, walls, corridors, and decorative elements have been destroyed and turned into a flooded garbage dump. 

Whatever promising tracks scholars and archaeologists investigate to find the last resting place of this great conqueror, they are stopped in their efforts at one point or another. Poor Alexander! He deserves so much more attention, care, and respect.

Roman glassware, as good as new

I have always been fascinated by Roman glassware in all its shapes, forms, and colors (see: The beauty of ancient glassware). 

Yet, I never came across glassware that survived in such pristine condition as that retrieved from the Cape Corse shipwreck in 2023. It lies on a Roman commercial route connecting Luna (modern Luni, Italy) to Massalia (modern Marseille), between Cape Corse in Corsica and the island of Capraia in Italy. It is the second known find with a cargo of almost exclusively glass, either in its raw state as blocks of various sizes or in the finished product of blown glass tableware. 

[Picture from Soprintendenza Nazionale per il Patrimonio Culturale Subacqueo]

The ship sank around 100 AD, and although it was discovered in 2013, we had to wait ten years for an international team of researchers to explore the wreck with two underwater drones. This modern equipment allowed them to retrieve the major part of its precious cargo using a very delicate claw system. 

A few thousand glass artifacts have been recovered, including drinking glasses, bottles, plates, cups, small bowls, and an ointment jar; also two bronze basins and several amphorae of different type such as oriental, the Beirut type, and four Gallic vessels. Combined with the raw glass, this find led the archaeologists to believe that the ship must have originated from a port in the Middle East, possibly Lebanon or Syria, and was headed towards the coast of Provence in Southern France. 

The Syrians were probably the first to have mastered the art of glass blowing as early as the 1^st century BC. Craftsmen from Sidon, Aleppo, Hama, and Palmyra developed the technique of using a blowpipe to shape molten glass, which allowed them to create objects faster than from cast glass. As a result, Syria became one of the most important glass production centers in the world, before, during, and after the Roman Empire. 

The main trade route started in Antioch (modern Antakya in Turkey) to supply the markets of Alexandria, Byzantium, and Rome, which, in turn, had steady connections with Massalia.

The question remains, how these thousands of glass objects were still undamaged and survived in such good conditions after resting at the bottom of the Mediterranean for two thousand years.

Kastabala, Hellenistic Hierapolis

It happens quite frequently that two or more cities go by the same name. That can be very tricky if we don’t pay attention. 

I actually stopped in my tracks when I saw a picture of the ancient city of Hierapolis built at the foot of a 35-meter-high hill crowned with a medieval tower. Hierapolis, as I know it, stands next to the famous Pamukkale hot springs, roughly 140 kilometers east of Aydin. Clearly, these are two different sites. 

[Picture from Turkisch Archaeological News]

In my earlier blog, Hierapolis, stepchild of Pamukkale, I developed the fascinating remains of Hierapolis/Pamukkale. The other city was known originally as Kastabala and changed its name to Hierapolis or Hieropolis in Hellenistic times. It lies much further to the East in Cilicia, on the Ceyhan River, halfway between Adana and Gaziantep. Alexander crossed the Ceyhan River after his illness in Tarsus on his way to Issus. 

As a matter of convenience, I’ll call this eastern city Hieropolis to avoid confusion. It was famous for its sanctuary of Artemis Perasia, where priestesses allegedly walked barefoot over hot coals during their rituals. The origins of Kastabala, however, go back some 2,700 years, and thus must have existed in Alexander’s time. 

Archaeological excavations in Hieropolis started in 2009 and so far have exposed mainly Roman remains of city walls, a 200-meter-long and 11-meter-wide colonnaded street, an Agora, public baths, temples, and a theater. This theater has been dated to the 1^st century AD and could seat 5,000 people. As so often, it would be the place for citizens’ debate and intellectual exchange. The Acropolis of Greek Kastabala is probably hidden underneath the medieval castle. 

[Picture from ZME Science]

This year, 2025, five fine theatrical masks were unearthed, among which one represents an elderly philosopher. In all, 36 masks have been retrieved. They typically blend Eastern and Western elements and will eventually contribute to restoring the theater stage to its former glory. 

Given the cultural heritage of the site, it makes sense that the reliefs — some depicting tragic heroes, others comic performers — embody a place where Greek drama, Roman architecture, and Anatolian myth intertwined. 

The use of opium in antiquity

Opium may be best known from the mid-19th-century Opium Wars in China. More recently, it was associated with Afghanistan, which provided nearly the entire world's production of opium, that is, until the Taliban decided in 2022 that it went against their religious beliefs. 

New in this context, however, is to learn that opium was a common good in ancient Egypt! 

[Picture from Phys.org ]

Researchers from the Yale Ancient Pharmacology Program (YAPP) studied the organic residues found on or within ancient vessels, providing insight into the diets and lifestyles of ancient people. 

A close examination of an Egyptian alabaster vase revealed traces of opiates that proved the use of opium in antiquity. This vase carries an inscription in four languages Akkadian, Elamite, Persian, and Egyptian. It is dedicated to King Xerxes I of Persia (486-465 BC), who had conquered Egypt in his expansion wars both westwards and eastwards. Inscriptions on vessels are very rare in ancient Egypt, as fewer than ten examples are known worldwide. This particular vase, 22 centimeters tall, holds a second text in Demotic, a simplified form of Egyptian, indicating that it had a capacity of 1.2 liters. 

The presence of opium has led to further investigation, indicating that far more alabaster vessels contained traces of opiate than expected, including those recovered from the Tomb of Tutankhamun. During its discovery in 1922, Howard Carter had noted the presence of a dark brown, sticky, aromatic substance inside the vessels without being able to identify it. Obviously, it was not some kind of perfume or unguent, but a product important enough to accompany the pharaoh into the afterlife. 

Modern researchers concluded that opium was used well beyond medicinal purposes, as mentioned by Hippocrates (see: A healthy mind in a healthy body – in early antiquity) and Galen (see: Hello? Dr. Galen?). It played a clear ritual role in many cultures, reaching from Mesopotamia to the Aegean. The earliest discovery of opiate residues was made in a merchant’s family tomb in Sedment, south of Cairo, dating back to before the 11^th century BC. 

It is amazing that a full century after its discovery, Tutankhamun’s Tomb has not yet revealed all its secrets and presently helps to clarify the role of opium in antiquity.

The healing waters of Myra

Who would have expected to find healing waters in Myra?
 
As mentioned earlier, the excavations in Myra are hampered by modern Demre, which is built on top of the ancient city (see: Recent excavations in Myra and Andriake). As a result, expropriations are never easy, but this time, luck is on the side of archaeologists as a disaffected industrial zone has become available. The terrain is located about halfway between Demre and the ancient port of Andriake.

[Picture from tuerkei-antik]

The site made headlines with the discovery of a Nymphaeum from the 2^nd century AD, built over a natural spring which is rich in magnesium, iron, sulfur, and phosphorus. This, by itself, is rare enough to make it stand out among the usual water monuments. It is believed to belong to a ‘healing water complex” comparable to a modern wellness center. The water source, constantly bubbling from underground, lies directly beneath this Nymphaeum and is connected to the nearby Baths, aqueducts, and water cisterns.
 
The monumental construction from the days of Emperor Hadrian shows three separate arched entrance gates, both on the east and west sides. It combines architectural elements carved into the bedrock and walls of cut stone.
 
The Nymphaeum functioned until the 7^th century AD, i.e., when the harbor of Andriake silted up and fell into disuse.
 
The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism has an ambitious vision to create a major attraction park where visitors will be able to swim in the healing waters while exploring the ruins. It reminds me of the pool at the bottom of Hierapolis, where we can swim among the crumbled remains of the Nymphaeum and its marble portico, possibly belonging to the Temple of Apollo. The plan should be completed by the end of 2026.

Restoration of Hadrian’s Nymphaeum in Sagalassos

It is always a pleasure to return to Sagalassos where the first excavations started in 1989 by Professor Marc Waelkens from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium (see: Sagalassos in Alexander's campaign). 

Year after year, new buildings are being exposed while existing monuments undergo diligent restorations. The huge Antonine Nymphaeum is stealing the show after water started flowing black into the wide basin for the past fifteen years, reflecting the elegant statues that adorn this fountain. 

[Picture from Turkiye Today]

One level lower on the same hillside stands the Nymphaeum of Hadrian, discovered in 2002. It is hard to imagine that it has two levels of columns and statues of gods and prominent figures, just as the Antonine Nymphaeum. As yet, the water channels connected to the pool are visible between the six-meter-tall columns at ground level. The most striking elements are the reliefs of the Muses resting against the water basin. Archaeologists expect that water will flow again from the second level of the monument, as is the case at the Antonine Nymphaeum. They aim for this project to materialize within two years. 

Meanwhile, the steps in front of the fountain have been reinforced, and the scattered original stones have been put back into place. The fountain holds an inscription confirming that it was built between 129 and 132 AD in memory of Emperor Hadrian as commanded by Tiberius Claudius Piso.

Herodes Atticus, more than a name

Herodes Atticus is best known for his theater at the foot of Athens’ Acropolis. For most people, it is only a name to define this historic monument, forgetting who he was and what he achieved in life.

Herodes Atticus was born in Marathon, Greece, into a family of Athenian descent in 101 AD. He is known as an Athenian rhetorician and a Roman senator, spending time between Greece and Italy.

 

He was exceptionally wealthy and moved in the highest social circles. Emperor Hadrian, for instance, appointed him Prefect of the free cities in the Roman Province of Asia in 125 AD. A good year later, he was elected archon (high magistrate) of Athens. And in 140 AD, Emperor Antoninus Pius invited him to Rome to educate his adopted sons, the future Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. As a Roman citizen, he was appointed Consul of Rome in 143 AD.

 
When he was 40 years old, he married Appia Annia Regilla, a 14-year-old aristocrat related to the family of Antoninus Pius’ wife.
 
Herodes Atticus was a philanthropic magnate and patron of many public works. What comes immediately to mind is the theater in Athens, which he financed in 161 AD to honor his wife, Regilla. Watching a Greek play performed within these walls or attending a popular or classical concert is a gratifying experience!

However, thousands and perhaps even millions of visitors have left their marks on the white marble construction. It calls for an extensive restoration and conservation process that is expected to take at least three years. During that time, the summer Athens Epidaurus Festival will be relocated elsewhere.

 
The overall deterioration consists of cracks in the Pentelic marble due to the variations in temperature and rainwater infiltration. Another problem is the plants that root in crevices and hold water. The theater had been destroyed in 267 AD and was in ruins until the 1950s, when the seating area and orchestra were restored. These repairs are now in dire need of improvement and require a comprehensive conservation plan.
 
The list of buildings Herodes Atticus funded is quite extensive. The ancient Panathenaic Stadium in Athens,  with a capacity of 50,000 seats, for instance, was one of his projects executed in 144 AD. Elsewhere in Greece, we owe him the Theater of Corinth, the Stadium of Delphi, the Baths of Thermopylae, and a splendid Nymphaeum in Olympia.
 
I was very surprised to read Herodes Atticus' name and his wife’s in Olympia. The Nymphaeum stands at the entrance to the Stadium. The two-story-high back wall was filled with statues of Herodes Atticus and several Roman Emperors like Antoninus Pius, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, and their family members. 

Most statues have been moved to the Museum of Olympia. Among them, I noticed Athenais, one of Herodes Atticus’ daughters. She married Lucius Vibullius Rufus, and the couple had six children, but only three survived to adulthood. The eldest daughter, Elpinice, was born in 142 AD and died in 165 AD. The son, Atticus Bradua, was born in 145 AD and was the only child to survive his father. Herodes Atticus was heavily disappointed by his son and left him nothing after his death.

 
Also exhibited in Olympia’s Museum is a life-size bull, which carries an inscription left by Regilla reading: "Regilla, priestess of Demeter offers the water and appendices to Zeus." This brings history to life!
 
Outside Greece, aqueducts donated by Herodes Atticus can be found in Canusium, Puglia region in Italy, and in Alexandria Troas, Asia Minor. In my blog post of February 2024, I mentioned the Baths and Gymnasium of Alexandria Troas built by Herodes Atticus in 135 AD. They were surrounded by vaulted corridors with marble walls, and water was delivered thanks to the aqueducts on the northeast side of town. Most of the building remained intact until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake in the winter of 1809-1810.
 

At the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, I encountered a statue of Polydeukes, also Vibullius Polydeukion, the adopted son of Herodes Atticus, dated to circa 150 AD. Wikipedia, however, mentions the boy as his pupil and lover in a relation resembling that of Hadrian and Antinous. Polydeukes died around 173-174 AD. His loss greatly affected Atticus, who built a Heroon in his memory.

 
Herodes Atticus lived to be 76 years old in 177 AD. Regilla had died in 160 AD, after being brutally kicked in the abdomen while eight months pregnant.  Her brother accused Herodes Atticus of having ordered one of his freedmen to beat her to death. At the trial that ensued, Herodes Atticus was acquitted by Emperor Marcus Aurelius, his former tutor.
 
I’m sure we’ll look at the Theater of Herodes Atticus with different eyes next time we walk through Athens.

Tlos, history in progress

I am quite amazed to see this recent picture of Tlos’ Theater and Stadium. What an invitation to return! 

[picture from Hurriyet Daily News]

Tlos lies on a hill overlooking the Xanthos River, less than 50 kilometers north of the well-known port city of Patara. The site is off the beaten track for mass tourism, but in the wake of the excavations and restoration carried out by archaeologists over the past months, this will thoroughly change. 

There obviously was enough material piled up amid the overgrowth of the theater’s orchestra to reconstruct the building with original stone blocks (see: Tlos in the beautiful Xanthos Valley). Nowadays, we can rely on digitalization to do the work virtually before actually moving the stones. Only a small number of blocks were beyond repair and had to be replaced with new matching marble. The ultimate reward is to host live events in the renovated theater this fall (2025). 

Despite early estimates that the theater could seat a maximum of 4,000 people, it transpires that after restoration, it offers enough space to host 8,500 spectators. That makes the theater one of the largest of its kind! 

The next project will focus on Tlos’ Stadium, which I recall had seating on one side only. In the 2^nd century AD, the Romans added a pool to the Stadium, to be used for naval battles. It was lined with shops that opened onto the Stadium on one side and onto the adjacent Agora on the other side. The city’s earliest road ran alongside. It was approximately eight meters wide and had a paved sidewalk 1.5 meters wide. The vaulted shops have been cleared from the soil that accumulated over the centuries. They will be restored next year (2026) to display their original façade behind the columns that lined the street. 

[Picture from Arkadaslik Yachting]

It has been established that in the early 5^th century BC, Tlos was a small settlement nestled on the Acropolis. The surrounding slopes were mainly used as a necropolis, which is still very present. After Alexander arrived in Lycia, the people’s ancestral ways of living changed as they moved to the plain below. In the years and centuries that followed, the familiar Greek and Roman buildings appeared, as testified by the remains of these impressive structures. 

Like in other Lycian cities, much of Tlos has been destroyed by the massive earthquake of 141 AD, causing the southern part of the Stadium to collapse. Another severe earthquake occurred in 240 AD. The theater fared better since it was built on bedrock.

The Parthenon, a moment in time

Now is the moment to see the Athenian Parthenon (see: Experiencing the perfection of a Greek temple) free of scaffolding. This is the first time in the past 200 years.

Not for long though, as the plans are to start further conservation works next month!

Those who will be able to visit this treasure are among the happy few!

[Picture from GoodNewsNetwork]

A bust of Alexander dug up in the UK

The news is not entirely new, but digging up a bust of Alexander the Great in the UK deserves all our attention. The Daily Mail made headlines saying that a 2,000-year-old bust of Alexander was recovered from the gardens of Sutton Place, near Guildford, UK. This property once belonged to Paul Getty, who later built a copy of the Villa dei Papiri from Herculaneum in California. 

[Picture from Daily Mail]

It was the estate’s gardener who discovered this bust during restoration works in 1984. The property was owned by an American art collector, who had acquired it from Mr. Getty’s son in 1980. Apparently, this art collector did not know the value of the find, and the gardener was allowed to keep his find, which he did all these years. 

He recently had a clear-out and took his belongings to an auction house. There, it was thought to be an 18^th or 19th-century copy of the Roman god Hercules. 

Luckily, it caught the attention and interest of antiquity dealers, who recognized this 38-centimeters tall bust as a young Alexander, wearing the lion headdress. It was dated to the 1^st century BC, but apparently nothing transpired about its country of origin or the name of the sculptor. 

How or when it arrived in the UK remains a mystery. It must have been buried before Paul Getty owned the property, as he most certainly would have recognized an original Alexander. 

This beautiful bust was eventually sold for almost 400,000 GBP and could have reached a higher price had it not undergone some repair of its nose and headdress. 

Statues from antiquity always have a story to tell, but here we have nothing to go by. As the new owner may be a private party, the likelihood of getting a thorough analysis is very slim.