A Roman bust retrieved in Soli Pompeiopolis (Mersin)

Excavations in Soli have been ongoing since 2015 (see: A two-month project to excavate the city of Soli), and each year, more remains of buildings, walls, and statues reach the news. 

[Picture from Hürriyet Daily News]

The most recent find appears to be the bust of a Roman Emperor or another high-placed nobleman. Based on the style of his curly full beard, he has been dated to the 2^nd-3^rd century AD. Emperor Hadrian, who visited Cilicia in 129-130 AD, seems to have initiated the beard fashion that had been abandoned after Alexander the Great. 

After Hadrian, Roman men were generally depicted with a beard, and many of the successive emperors followed suit. 

The bust was recovered near the colonnade street and may have belonged to one of the statues that stood on the plinth of one of these columns. 

The near life-size head has been transferred to the Museum in Mersin, which holds many of the recent finds.

The surprise of Myndos

Nowadays, Myndos is probably best-known for its underwater causeway running from the city’s harbor to Rabbit Island, which is guarding the mainland. It is a favorite with the tourists who happily walk across the bay when the sea level is only reaching to their knees. Otherwise, the site has very little to offer with cut stones and column drums strewn around. 

These ruins make it very difficult to imagine that Myndos was once a large prosperous city. In 377 BC, King Mausolos of Halicarnassus established Caria’s independence from Persia. He rebuilt the cities of Myndos and Syangela, and moved all other Carians to Halicarnassus, which he proclaimed his new capital (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria). 

Myndos, modern Gümüșlük, had a well-sheltered harbor, well-protected against the prevailing wind. The city had a two-mile-long fortification wall and its most vulnerable southeastern section was strengthened with towers. The green granite used for its construction is the same as the one known from the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus. The quarry providing these stones has been located in Koyunbaba, some three kilometers to the north. 

Otherwise, hardly anything else remains from ancient Myndos. Some rock-cut stairs and foundations of houses are found on the hillside, but the ruins that were present in the early 19^th century have entirely disappeared. They are said to belong to a theater from the 4th century BC, a stadium with 7 columns, vaulted remains of a Bath, and a late Roman/early Byzantine basilica. 

Until the 1990s, there were more ancient stone blocks and bits of columns lying around in the village. Near a school, about 1.5 kilometers inland, some columns and Roman mosaics could be seen. Strangely, the nearby silver mines (hence the name Gümüșlük) are not mentioned in ancient sources. 

When Alexander besieged Halicarnassus in 334 BC, he speculated that Myndos would offer an easier approach. Some people in Myndos had actually suggested that they might open the city gates if he arrived under cover of darkness. Alexander took their word, but when he showed up at the gates there was no sign of surrender. Facing the betrayal, he ordered his Macedonians to attack without much result because he had not brought any rams, artillery or ladders. Myndos put up a vigorous resistance and soon was joined by Halicarnassus’ troops arriving by sea. Alexander was forced to withdraw and returned to besiege Halicarnassus. 

The capital of Caria was not taken so easily because the Persian commander Orontobates had the support of the Persian fleet. For the time being, Halicarnassus was no longer a real threat. Alexander moved on but left Ptolemy and Asander behind to finally take the city and to evict the remaining Persians. It was only a year later, in Soli, that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen!  At the same time, the town of Myndos came under Macedonian hands (see: A two-month-project to excavate the city of Soli). 

After the king’s death, Myndos was ruled by the Ptolemies from 308 until 275 BC. In 96 BC, it became independent and minted its own coins. Myndos was included in the Roman Province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. 

The harbor city was again in the news after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, after which Brutus and Cassius were expelled from Rome; they took their fleet to safety here at Myndos. By the end of 42 BC, the two murderers lost the battle against Marc Antony and Octavian in Philippi, and Myndos was given to Rhodes (see: Philippi, Macedonia’s gold and silver mines). Not for long though as the Rhodians treated Myndos harshly and unfairly and became independent again. However, it gradually lost its prosperity, although it may have survived till the 7th century AD. 

Myndos is often referred to as a Lelegian town, dating back to the Bronze Age. Except for its name, it has no connection with the classical city discussed in this article and both have a different history. The Lelegian site is nowadays called Old Myndos and lies a good three kilometers southeast of Gümüșlük.

Alexander preparing for the siege of Tyre

After the Battle of Issus, Alexander was more determined than ever to take all the harbors of the eastern Mediterranean to outmaneuver the Persian maritime power. He marched to Marathus (modern Amrit) and from there onward to Byblos, which both surrendered. 

The next famous city on Alexander’s route was Sidon, whose inhabitants were only too happy to get rid of their Persian satrap, Straton. They welcomed the Macedonian king as their liberator. A new ruler had to be found, and Hephaistion was instructed to search for the appropriate candidate. King Abdalonymus was a respectable and honest man, and the people loved him. Out of gratitude for this appointment, Abdalonymus, at a later age, commissioned the famous Alexander sarcophagus that is now on display at the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul.  

As Alexander marched further south, he reached the powerful Phoenician Tyre. The city had prospered because of its trade in purple dye, which was highly valued throughout the ancient world. Already in the early 6^th century BC, this richness had attracted the attention of King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. He laid siege to Tyre for 13 years without success. This simply illustrates the challenges Alexander was about to face.  

Tyre was of strategic importance, a massive fortress island surrounded by well-defended high walls separated from the mainland by a deep channel. It had two natural harbors, one on the north side facing Sidon and another on the south looking towards Egypt. The Tyrians felt pretty secure since they enjoyed the protection of a substantial Persian fleet in both ports. 

Before reaching the city, Alexander was met by its envoys, stating that they would abide by any of his instructions. The Macedonian king gracefully thanked the representatives and expressed his wish to enter Tyre to sacrifice to Heracles, who was, in fact, their god Melqarth or Baal. Basically, the Tyrians accepted Alexander’s arrival but refused to admit him or his Macedonians inside their fortress on the island. 

Alexander needed to take Tyre to safeguard his back on his march further south to Egypt. The only way was to lay siege to the city – a tremendous and complicated task because he had disbanded most of his own fleet, and the remaining ships were no match for the Persian forces. Clearly, the fortress could not be taken from the sea alone, and thus Alexander decided to build a causeway to connect the island to the mainland. It was a tedious and dangerous operation as the Tyrians had no intention of letting this happen. 

Construction went underway and progressed steadily in the shallow waters near the coastline. Stones from the old city of Tyre were used for the foundation of the mole, and piles were driven into the mud to keep the stones in place (see: Alexander's Isthmus, Tyre, Lebanon). But as the Macedonians reached deeper water, matters changed dramatically. Progress slowed down because many more stones were needed to fill the depth, while the Tyrian ships could now approach the causeway and attack the exposed workers. In response, Alexander built two towers mounted with artillery and faced them with hides to somehow protect his soldiers on the mole. The army could drive the enemy away from their precarious shelter with their own missiles. 

The Tyrians were not to be discouraged and decided to take a cattle-ship and stuff it with dry brushwood and straw. They added two masts to create a higher pile of inflammable material, including pitch and sulfur, to fan the fire. They also attached caldrons filled with liquids that could be poured onto the fire to increase its fury. To ensure these vessels would come as close as possible to the causeway, they added heavy ballast in the aft section to lift the bows to a maximum. Triremes pulled these burning vessels close to the Macedonia towers, and as they caught fire, the Tyrians withdrew immediately to save themselves. The fire was an absolute inferno. 

Although this attack meant a severe setback, it would not deter Alexander from executing his plan. Instead of repairing the substantial devastation, he started the work all over again. He built a broader mole at the shoreside with enough space for more towers and instructed his engineers to construct new engines.

  

Alexander, as always, saw the greater picture. He moved back to Sidon to gather as many ships as possible to annihilate the enemy navy, since that was imperative to conquer Tyre. At this stage, the king was joined by two Persian satraps, who, after learning that Aradus and Byblos were in Macedonian hands, decided to side with Alexander. Sidon contributed with its own warships, bringing the total Phoenician ships to about eighty. After his victory at Issus and having taken Phoenicia, Alexander’s fleet was spontaneously joined by Rhodes with ten ships, three ships from Soli and Mallus, and ten more from Lycia. The king of Cyprus also decided to join his forces to Alexander’s and sailed to Sidon with some 120 ships. With so many of these previously Persian allies now fighting on Alexander’s side, the situation of the Macedonians suddenly looked much better. 

This most certainly was the turning point in the entire siege! 

Continued in Alexander besieging Tyre.

[Pictures from World History, Dan Diffendale (Melquart) and United States Military Academy, Dept of History (map)]

The role of Cyprus in Alexander’s campaign

Because of its copper mines, Cyprus was famous for producing armor, swords, and other objects in bronze since early antiquity. Another richness of the island was its shipbuilding and its navy, which made it the envy of many nations and kings. Besides, the island occupies a strategic position for those conquerors who aimed to control Asia Minor and Egypt. 

With more or less success, the Persians ruled over Cyprus since the 6th century BC. This situation changed after Alexander’s battle at Issus and his victorious campaigns on the coast of Asia Minor, Syria, and Phoenicia. The Cypriots realized that sooner or later, the Macedonian king would occupy their island too. They decided to make their fleet, which hitherto had been at the service of the Persians, available to Alexander. In exchange, they acquired their political independence. 

It is probably around this time that the King of Citium (the ancient name for Larnaca) gave Alexander a masterly executed sword, which Plutarch described as exceptionally light and well-tempered (see: Alexander’s battle outfit) 

As Alexander approached Tyre in 332 BC, he was not welcome to enter the city. He had no choice but to lay siege to Tyre, which was situated on an offshore island. This would not stop Alexander, who built a mole of 750 meters to connect the island to the mainland. All that time, the Tyrenians continued to defend their city by all means available. Besides, they received help from the sea as the Persian fleet had free access to both the north and south harbors. 

Since Alexander’s own reduced fleet was no match against the Persians, he called upon his allies to assist him. Eighty Phoenician triremes arrived along with nine from Rhodes, three from Soli and Mallus, ten from Lycia, and fifty-oared vessels from Macedonia joined in. Cyprus dispatched 120 warships, a substantial number to efficiently swell Alexander’s naval force. With his fleet in position, the king was ready to launch his joint land and naval operation, and he successfully captured Tyre. He thus ended a siege that had lasted for nine months. 

The seafaring experience of the Cypriots was a precious asset for Alexander, even during his later campaigns. He cut the ships into manageable sections and hauled them overland all the way to India. More than anywhere else, the crafts were handy to cross the many rivers of the Punjab and their tributaries. When the king decided to sail down the Indus to the Outer Ocean, he had his engineers (many of them from Cyprus) build ships of different sizes and shapes to transport troops and animals downstream. Shipbuilders and rowers from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Caria joined the Cypriot forces to create this flotilla led by the specially appointed admiral Nearchus. 

After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Cyprus fell under Ptolemaic rule and eventually became fully Hellenized. 

[Picture from Heritage Daily, credit Anna Kubicka] 

Today, archaeologists have discovered a unique rock-cut banqueting site in Paphos. It is located close to a temple near the top of Fabrika Hill. Such a place would be used to share the meat of the animals sacrificed on the adjacent monumental altar. Such rituals were common in Cyprus and in other Mediterranean cultures like the Nabataeans in Petra, Jordan. However, this is the first such example unearthed in Cyprus. Religious banquets in the open air are usually held in semi-circular constructions and present a round depression in the center to drain the libations in honor of the gods. 

So far, archaeologists have not been able to identify with certainty which God was worshiped, but Aphrodite is the most likely candidate since she was born from the sea, not far from Paphos. The banqueting site and the temple were used from the 2nd century BC onward. The city, however, was founded earlier, sometime during the 4^th century BC. It was abandoned probably after the earthquake of circa 150 AD.

Aratus of Soli, poet and astronomer

 

Aratus was an astronomer and poet who was born in Soli (near modern Mersin) in 315 BC. He came in the news after this year’s ongoing excavations in Soli, the Roman Pompeiopolis, as archaeologists discovered a memorial tomb. This grave site was surrounded by two rows of hexagonal structures and arches and is being described as “a crater with a circular plot worthy of an astronomer”.

These elements led the scholar to link the monument to their citizen Aratus, although he died in Alexander’s birthplace Pella, in 240 BC.

It so happened that Aratus was invited to the Macedonian court by Antigonus II Gonatas, the son of Demetrios Poliorcetes, in 276 BC. One year later, the poet penned down the king’s victory over the Gauls in verse form.

While he resided in Pella, Aratus wrote a hexameter poem on astronomy. In the first half of his Phenomena, he retells the work of Eudoxus of Cnidos, describing the constellations and other celestial phenomena, which he set into verse. The second half was known as Diosemeia and talks about the weather. The interest in Aratus’ poem was such that it was translated into Latin, and his work triggered a great number of comments from the Greek and Latin-speaking public.

However, he was also active in the field of philosophy, grammar, and medicine (some pretend he was a doctor).

He spent some time in Syria as a guest of Antiochus I Soter, but returned to Pella, where he died in 240/239 BC.

[Pictures from Greek City Times]

Hoping to find traces of Alexander at Magarsus

After Alexander recovered from his illness in Tarsus, he first marched on Soli, located a few miles west of modern Icil. He imposed a fine of 200 talents because the city supported the Persian cause. Although they were allowed to keep their own popular government, he nevertheless installed a garrison of his own. After the Battle of Issus in November 333 BC, Alexander canceled the debt of fifty talents Soli still owed, and he returned their hostages. This kindness was reciprocated to Alexander when he was laying siege to Tyre one year later, and three ships from Soli joined the reinforcement fleet of eighty Phoenician vessels and several others.

Once his business was finished at Soli, Alexander returned to Tarsus. The time had come to set his army in motion, and he marched to Magarsus, the most southerly point between the Seyhan and the Ceyhan rivers, near modern Karataş, which served as a port to Mallus. The king then moved to Mallus, a few kilometers further inland (possibly near modern Kızıltahta), and exempted the town from paying taxes because it was a colony of Argos.

This is about as much as we know of Alexander’s presence in Magarsus, where excavations were initiated as recently as 2013. The city was named after the Magarsia sisters of the Temple of Athena, founded at some date during the 5^th century BC.

[Picture from the Hurriyet Daily News]

So far, the theatre offering seating for 4,000 people has been excavated. It is 150 meters high and 30 meters wide and is turned towards the sea. Authorities hope to open the theatre soon for modern-day performances.

Next season’s excavations, which will probably start in March or April, will focus on Magarsus’ Cilician Stadium and many temples. Useless to say that I have secret hopes that some traces of Alexander the Great’s passage will also be found.

This season’s excavation project at Soli (near Mersin)

Somehow, I have missed the results of last year’s excavations at Soli, which sounded very promising (see: A two-month project to excavate the city of Soli).

[Picture from the Hurriyet Daily News]

It seems that besides the visible colonaded street, main structures like the harbor, the theater, the Roman Baths, and the aqueducts, as well as the city walls, have been unearthed. The necropolis has exposed a large number of human remains among many gifts, including Byzantine seals, plates, and bowls. Several statues of famous citizens and Roman Emperors that lined the main street have been uncovered, as well as statues of Asclepius, his daughter Hygeia, Zeus, Demeter, Nemesis, and Dionysus.

So far, archaeologists have been able to reconstruct several fallen columns along the main street, meaning that 47 are standing there in all their glory.

Part of the finds have been moved to the nearby Museum of Mersin, but I am certain that after this excavation season, more artifacts will find their way to its exhibition rooms.

A two-month project to excavate the city of Soli (near Mersin, Turkey)

The news was announced in mid-July 2015. For years, all one could see here were two rows of columns running on each side of what seemed to be the main street of the Roman city. Tourists had no access to the site and I hope this will change after the said excavations have been carried out.

This year’s team will work on the restoration of the columns, most of which still have their Corinthian capitals, and investigate the continuation of the street as well as the Roman shops established alongside. Last year, they unearthed a very active harbor, including part of the wall dating from the period between the first century BC and the first century AD.

Soli has my interest because it is one of those Cilician cities where Alexander installed a garrison in 333 BC after having demanded a fine of 200 talents of silver for supporting the Persians against him. This fine is a considerable sum if one considers, for instance, that the yearly income of Athens in 431 BC was estimated at 1,000 talents. From Soli, Alexander marched against the Cilicians holding the hills behind the city. Some were driven off, others surrendered, and within a week, he was back in Soli – a short incursion, it seems.

It is here that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen! Ptolemy and Asander had stayed behind in 334 BC to besiege the city and to evict the Persian commander Orontobates. With the fall of Halicarnassus, the towns of Myndos, Caunos, Thera, and Callipolis came into Macedonian hands, together with Cos and Triopium (Cape Crio in southwestern Turkey). This victory called for a celebration, and Alexander is said to have offered sacrifices to Asclepius – no doubt to thank the god for his recovery from the fever he caught in Tarsus. He also held a ceremonial parade of his troops, followed by a torch race and games with music and poetic contests as well as athletics.

Whatever the situation, Soli was allowed to retain its own popular government. After the Battle of Issus in November 333 BC, Arrian tells us that Alexander cancelled the debt of fifty talents, Soli still owed and returned their hostages. This kindness was reciprocated to Alexander when he was laying siege on Tyre a year later, and three ships from Soli joined the reinforcement fleet of eighty Phoenician vessels and several others.

I doubt there will be much, if anything, left to testify from Alexander’s day since reference is generally made to the Roman and Byzantine occupation, with a faint hint towards the Seleucids who were Alexander’s successors in Cilicia.

The first to colonize the area were the Greeks from Rhodes in about 700 BC, and they named the city Soli, which eventually flourished, especially when the Persians ruled Asia Minor. After Alexander, Soli gradually lost its importance with the decline of the Seleucids in the first and second centuries BC, but gained again in prosperity with the arrival of the Roman general Pompey. He took advantage of Soli’s naval base while campaigning against the pirates who pillaged the cities of the eastern Mediterranean. From those days onward, the city was renamed Pompeiopolis in honor of their leader and liberator. New defensive walls and several public buildings and roads were built, and after Hadrian’s visit and sponsorship in 130 AD, the harbor was expanded. Pompeiopolis/Soli successfully withstood the Persian attack of 260 AD and the city’s importance kept on growing, even through the Byzantine period when it became a bishopric. However, the powerful earthquake that hit the region in 525 AD completely devastated the city, which was abandoned.

[Pictures from The Hurriyet Daily News]

About Greek theater plays

Whoever travels to Greece or Turkey cannot miss the ever-present remains of antique theaters, all in relatively good condition.  

The origin of theater tragedies goes back to the 6th century BC, thanks to the feasts that were held in honor of Dionysos, the Dionysia. For the first time in 534 BC, they are considered a permanent program element. Theaters are no longer exclusively used for religious performances but have become the place where the lives of heroes and half-gods are related. The tragic poet is the most essential element. He not only writes the tragedy but also expresses his songs as an actor, accompanied by 12-15 singers and dancers.

Aeschylus (525-456 BC) is the first author to break traditions by introducing a second actor to create a dialogue between two people. Although the choir is still essential, it is now pushed to the background. In those days, we discovered a difference between light comedy and tragedy, which treated the conflicts between men and the gods.

A third actor is introduced by Sophocles (405-406 BC), enabling the creation of intrigue between the other two persons. The choir at this stage serves only to support the action. When in 460 BC, Sophocles stops performing, an actual separation between writing theater plays and acting occurred.

The third playwriter was Euripides (ca. 480-405 BC), who spent several years at the Macedonian court in the days of King Archelaus, where he died. He must have written more than ninety plays, of which at least 20% have come to us more or less complete. His fame is because he actually wrote dialogues that sounded like spontaneous conversations instead of carrying the ritual contexts from older plays. In his lifetime, most of his public did not appreciate this "modern" style. Only after his death did he become the favorite of Athenian theaters.

It is evident that Alexander grew up with theater plays, as his father before him, as well as his ancestors, who all loved to watch a good play. From 449 BC onward, the Greek States chose plays with three main actors: the principal role was performed by the Protagonist, who in turn hired the supporting actors, i.e., the second actor, the Deuteragonist, and the third actor, the Tritagonist. The choir was not composed of professional actors but of civilians appointed by the city. The principal actors, however, were also allowed to compete for prizes in special competitions. The peak of acting was reached in the fourth century BC, and actors even became more important than playwriters. The most famous players went so far as to adapt parts of the play to match their egos or ambitions. In the heyday, actors were exonerated from taxes and military service. Thanks to their popularity, they enjoyed the admiration and protection of kings and the social elite. In return, the kings and the nobility entrusted them with significant political and diplomatic missions, by which the actors could make history away from the theater.

We will remember the Pixodarus affair when Alexander asked the tragic actor Thettalus to plead in his favor with the Carian satrap for his daughter's hand. By this maneuver, Alexander hoped to thwart his father's plan, who had offered his retarded son, Arrhidaeus, Alexander's half-brother, in marriage to the infant daughter of Pixodarus of Caria. Because of their political immunity, actors were often asked to act as mediators with rulers or politicians, and Alexander knew how to exploit that possibility. This time, however, Alexander had to pay a high price for interfering with his father's plans, as King Philip banished all Alexander's friends from Macedonia except Hephaistion.

In the summer of 331 BC, when Alexander installed himself temporarily at Tyre after leaving Egypt, he organized a grand celebration in honor of Melqart-Heracles. The kings of Salamis and Soli, who sponsored the event, hired the most celebrated actors of the day, including evidently Thettalus, who by now had become a personal friend of the king. Unfortunately for Alexander, Thettalus did not win the contest.

The same actor was again invited by Alexander in 324 BC when he organized the mass wedding in Susa, where he married the Persian princess Stateira (or Barsine). Her sister, Drypetis, was given to Hephaistion. Alexander's close companions were all married to girls from high Persian nobility. Eighty other couples shared the feast in a wonderfully idealistic dream to bring East and West closer together.