The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 3

In this last part of the Periplus, Arrian takes us from Dioscuras/Sebastopolis to Byzantium. 

He starts his story where he left off at the conclusion of part 1, i.e., in Sebastopolis (see: Tour of Colchis: From Trapezus to Sebastopolis). This section, the Cimmerian Bosporus, was not controlled directly by Rome but by a so-called client king. In Hadrian’s day, that was Cotys II, in full Tiberius Julius Cotys, who ruled from 123/4 AD until he died in 131/2 AD. His appointment was made for life, and his successor needed to be officially recognized by Rome. 

At the news of his death, Arrian decided that Hadrian would be interested in having the latest information about the Bosporan Kingdom since it supplied a great deal of wheat, clothing, wine, and slaves. His territory was also an important buffer zone with the warlike Alans living to the north. 

Arrian sailed along the mountainous coastline below the Caucasus to Pityus, some 65 kilometers away. These lands were occupied by the Zilchi, ruled by a certain Stachemphax, also recognized as a king by Hadrian. Follows a list of cities, harbors, and rivers, including the distances between them, from Crimea to the mouth of the Danube River. More familiar are the Greek cities on the south coast of Crimea, such as Panticapaeum (Kerch), Theodosia, Cercinitis, and Chersonesus (Kherson). Panticapaeum, which lies only 11 kilometers from the Tanais River (modern Don River) and flows into Maeotis Lake (Sea of Azov) was seen as the place where Europe ended and Asia started. 

Sailing further west, Arrian stops at the Greek city of Olbia at the mouth of today’s Dnieper River. Next, he heads for the harbor of Odessos, a trading post founded by the Greeks from Istria. From here, he continues to the wide delta of the Ister River (Danube), where he reaches the Island of Achilles or Leuke (possibly Snake Island in Ukraine). Legend has it that Thetis gave it to her son. The island was known for its Temple of Achilles, which held a wooden statue of the hero, as well as Greek and Latin inscriptions in honor of Achilles and his dear Patroclus. Arrian speaks of many offerings that were made, including sacrifices of animals. Those who sail by the island may “see” Achilles in their dreams or hallucinations. 

Proceeding further down the coast of the Black Sea, Arrian arrives at Tomis, a colony founded by the Greeks, where Emperor Augustus banished the poet Ovid. The next port was Callatis, established by the Carians, followed by Odessos (another harbor by that name), where he entered Thracia. 

Passing the eastern end of the Haemus Mountains (in central Bulgaria), Arrian reaches Miletus’ colony of Apollonia, which once held a colossal statue of the god Apollo. From here, he sailed to the not-so-good harbor of Salmydessus (roughly 150 km east of Hadrianopolis, modern Edirne), where Xenophon helped Seuthes II to become King of Thracia. 

By now, Arrian has landed on the Thracian side of the Bosporus. This area is reputed for the Cyanean Islands or Symplegades (also Clashing Rocks), a pair of rocks that clash together when a ship sails through. In Greek mythology, the rocks were defeated by Jason on his way to Colchis on board his ship, the Argo. 

Byzantium is Arrian’s final destination. He concludes by mentioning the local Temple of Zeus Ourios (who grants favorable winds), where Jason and the Argonauts erected an altar to the Twelve Olympian Gods on their return from Colchis. 

In our modern days of traveling by plane and high-speed trains, it is hard to imagine the pace in antiquity when people and armies moved on foot. Ships and barges were a comfortable alternative, although winds and currents were not always reliable. Travelers could never predict the duration of a trip or the time of arrival, but in those days, time was not so much of the essence as it is today. 

Though Arrian wrote his Periplus 130-131 AD, we don’t know how many months or weeks he actually spent at sea. Considering that the circumference of the Black Sea is over 4,000 kilometers, it may be safe to speculate that he spent most of those two years “on the road”. Quite an achievement!

[For the locations, please consult this map]

Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece

Thracia is generally associated with Bulgaria, but originally its borders extended from the Istros River (now the Danube forming the border between Bulgaria and Romania) to the Aegean Sea and from the Hellespont, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea in the east to Philip’s Macedonia in the west. Today, the Greek province of Thrace still stretches from the Rhodope Mountains on its northern border with Bulgaria to the Aegean. It is squeezed between the Nestos River in the west and the Hebros in the east, forming the modern border with Turkey.

Because of its geographical position, Thrace was clearly a country at a significant crossroads. It functioned as a buffer zone in cultural and economic exchanges with its surrounding neighbors. 

When Philip became king of Macedonia, his eastern border was at the Strymon River, but he soon pushed further east, all the way to the Hellespont. After Alexander died in 323 BC, the cards were reshuffled between his generals, and eventually, it was Lysimachos who became King of Thrace. The Romans added the country to their empire and made it the Province of Thrace in 46 AD. Both Trajan and Hadrian (creating their own cities of Trajanopolis and Hadrianopolis) recognized the importance of Thrace, but, at the same time, left ownership in the hands of the indigenous population. 

One of the most characteristic heritages of Thracian civilization is their profusion of burial mounds – a tradition that goes back to the Bronze Age, the middle of the 4th-2nd millennium BC. In central Bulgaria alone, over 1,500 such tumuli exist in the Valley of the Thracian Kings, and so far, only 300 have been properly excavated. Among the most famous monuments to date are the richly painted Tomb of Kazanlak (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings) from the 4th century BC and the temple tomb of King Seuthes III, who died in 300 BC. 

Beyond Bulgaria, the typical Thracian tumuli are also found in Greece's most eastern Province of Thraiae. Here, the burial mound of Mikri Doxipara–Zoni is located. This one was constructed much later than the abovementioned ones, i.e., at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, when the region was under Roman rule. Obviously, the style and decoration of the tombs have evolved. From frescoed vaulted rooms to hold the deceased's cremated remains, to simple burials in the ground where the dead were put to rest together with their chariots and horses.

The tumulus of Doxipara is not very tall, hardly 7.5 meters high, but with its diameter of 60 meters, it is one of the largest in the region. It was situated close to the road that connected Hadrianopolis (modern Edirne in Turkey) to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv in Bulgaria). 

Excavations started in 2002 have revealed four large pits containing the cremated remains of three males and one female. A total of five chariots and their draft animals have been exposed and can be divided into two groups. The first group is made of two chariots labeled B and C. The second group consists of three chariots labeled A, D, and E. Although four-wheeled wagons have been found in Europe and Asia, Greece is the first.

Close to each group are separate horse burial sites where the spare horses were laid to rest: two horses on site A and three horses on site B. In all cases, after the chariots carried the dead to the burial site, they were interred together with their still-harnessed horses. The wheels had been taken from the chariots. Today, the bronze rims, bolts, and other elements remain in situ since the wooden components have disintegrated occasionally, leaving their imprint on the clay bottom. At first sight, these remains closely resemble the picture of the Thracian chariot discovered lately in Bulgaria (see: The story of the Thracian chariot). Still, this site is much and much more extensive. 

Horses were a clear symbol of wealth and status for their owners, and it is assumed that the burial site of Doxipara belonged to a wealthy family of landowners. However, no houses or nearby residences have been located as yet. 

The entire tumulus has been dug out and removed, but the wagons and horse skeletons are left exactly where they were uncovered. This makes it a fascinating place to visit!

The tomb also contains the human remains of three men and one woman who died in close succession. They were cremated in appropriate pits with small animals like piglets or birds and fruit like walnuts, almonds, and pine nuts. Once the fire was extinct, the usual offerings that accompanied them in the afterlife were placed around the remains together with vessels in bronze, glass, and terracotta containing water, wine, milk, or honey. Personal possessions such as bronze lamps and lanterns, weapons, small jewelry, etc., were also added. Once this ritual was completed, the pits were filled with earth, and slowly a mound covered those interred. 

On the eastern flank of the tumulus, two platforms were exposed, which served as funerary altars.  

The site of Doxipara is a unique example of the funerary procedures of the Thracians in Roman times, proving that their own customs still prevailed on whatever rites were current in the Roman Empire.

[Click here to see all the pictures of The Thracian Tombs of Doxipara]