Plato, more than a philosopher

Plato is a highly fascinating figure. Not only was he a student of Socrates, but he also taught Aristotle, who, in turn, passed his knowledge on to young Alexander. 

Plato, born in 427 BC, received the best education of his time. Although we know him mainly as a philosopher, he was educated in martial arts and horse riding, besides mathematics and music, painting, and drawing. 

When about the age of twenty, he encountered Socrates teaching on the Agora of Athens, and he realized that philosophy was a more worthy goal to pursue. 

Socrates hardly wrote anything down. We know him from Plato and Xenophon, who are not always in agreement. Socrates preferred talking, or rather asking questions, to the point of embarrassing and irritating his audience. 

Plato followed his master until the Athenians executed him on the charge of impiety in 399 BC. He then left Athens and traveled to other philosophical centers, such as Megara and Syracuse in Sicily, and later to Egypt and Cyrene. He became a student of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Heraclitus, and concentrated on the religion and metaphysics of Egypt. 

Before the Museum of Alexandria was founded, the center of knowledge was in Heliopolis, where priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks, like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon, consulted the Library that contained the history of Egypt going back thousands of years. For us, Egypt's ancient history is lost in the mists of time… How much was (still) available in Plato’s days? Probably far more than we can imagine. 

In the 380s BC, Plato returned to Athens, where he started the Academy. The philosopher educated his followers in a shrine of olive groves, sacred to the Greek hero Academos, and called it, therefore, Academia. Plato’s school would continue to thrive till the early 6^th century AD when it was shut down by Emperor Justinian. This Byzantine emperor was determined to erase paganism for good and impose Christianity instead to regain control over the Western Roman Empire. 

Plato is best known for his Dialogues and his Letters. He contributed hugely to our Western culture and religion, although few people realize his impact on monotheistic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. He was the first philosopher to mention and underscore the soul's immortality. For that reason, his work was not destroyed but accepted by the Christian religious leaders. Plato also stressed the importance of ‘objective truth’ in order to live well. 

As a result of the recent advanced imaging diagnostic techniques to read the carbonized papyri from Herculaneum (see: Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum), scholars have discovered more details about Plato’s life, of which very little is otherwise known. By virtually realigning the bits of burnt papyrus, they were able to restore the continuity of the text and obtain more information. 

The scroll revealed that Plato was sold into slavery on the island of Aegina, south of Athens, either in 404 BC when Sparta conquered the island, or in 399 BC upon the death of Socrates. It was previously and erroneously accepted that this event took place while he resided at the court of Dionysios of Syracuse in 387 BC. 

We also learned more about the final hours of Plato. While battling a fever, he listened to flute music played by a Thracian slave girl. He was still very lucid as he had the strength to criticize the girl’s lack of rhythm. A perfectionist to the end? 

Plato died in 348/347 BC, and it is now understood that he was buried in the garden of his Academia of Athens. This is very telling since the Academy is considered the world’s first university, which he founded next to the Mouseion. 

Deciphering the papyrus scrolls is a lengthy process that may well require many more years. Who knows what more we will learn?

Heraklea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria

There are a great number of towns going by the name Heraclea or Herakleia throughout Turkey and Greece. Wikipedia provides an enticing list of places. 

In previous blogs, I developed Herakleia Pontus, a kingdom in Bithynia (see: Time to reconnect with Princess Amastris), Herakleia by Latmos to be found on the banks of Lake Bafa in Western Turkey, Herakleia Lyncestis in Illyria (see: King Philip, one year later – Macedonia forged by Philip II), and Heracleion-Thonis (see: Heracleion, ancient Greek port in Egypt).

This time, I’m focusing on Heraclea Sintica in southwestern Bulgaria. The additive Sintica refers to the Sintians, a Thracian tribe that lived in the Valley of the Struma, the Greek Strymon River that runs past Amphipolis. The Sintian occupation goes back to 1300-1200 BC. Although many sources claim that the city had been founded by Cassander around 300 BC, others state that it was Philip, Alexander’s father who conquered Sintica and added Heraclea to remind the Thracians and the Macedonians that his ancestor was Heracles. The city’s layout appears to be similar to that of Philippi or Philippopolis. 

Heraclea Sintica was a major hub on the North-South traffic and connected the Aegean coast to Macedonia, Thrace, and the Balkan hinterland. In its heyday, its population may have reached 40-50,000 inhabitants! 

The city existed at least until the 6^th century AD since it was mentioned in the Byzantine tax records of Emperor Justinian the Great. 

Although the city's name was known, it took some investigation to find its location. A Latin inscription left by Emperor Galerius revealed that in response to their plea to restore their lost civil rights in 308 AD, he addressed the local citizens as those of Heraclea Sintica. 

Serious and steady excavations in Heraclea Sintica are pretty recent and seem to have started in 2007. 

By 2016, an imposing Basilica was unearthed, measuring 22 x 16 meters with walls rising five meters tall, next to other sanctuaries and shops. An older Basilica from the 4th century BC was discovered a year earlier. A striking find happened in 2017 when a Roman gold necklace came to light. It has been dated to the 4^th century AD and may have been made by craftsmen in Rome. 

In 2018, a headless Roman statue from ca. 100 AD was found underneath the stairs of the Forum. The statue represents a magistrate and was apparently carefully buried four meters deep. More recently, a female head was discovered in the eastern corner of the Forum. This head carries traces of ocher paint, indicating that the woman was blond. In ancient times, blond hair symbolized sin. This beautiful marble seems to date to the same time as the headless man. It is too early to draw any conclusion about the reason for these careful burial rites, as the site has not been entirely investigated yet. Intriguingly, both discoveries were made underneath buildings of later periods. Archaeologists suppose that these respectful funerals could have had a ritual meaning in antiquity – and may have been meant as protection from calamities or barbarian attacks. 

More questions remain unsolved, like the bone needle whose end was wrapped in a thin gold sheet. It must have belonged to a woman of some importance who lived in Heraclea Sintica in the 2^nd century AD. 

Undoubtedly, many more buildings and artifacts are still hidden from view, awaiting to be uncovered.

Istanbul, The Imperial City by John Freely

Istanbul, The Imperial City by John Freely (ISBN 978-0140244618) is by far the most complete historical guide you can find. It is a lightweight, handy format that easily fits into your backpack.

Every first-time visitor will inevitably be overwhelmed by the many remnants of this capital, famed successively as Byzantium, Constantinople, and Istanbul, which has had a far-reaching role on the world map for over three thousand years.

For obvious reasons, the book is divided into three parts.

The first and shortest covers the city's birth on the Bosporus and the first Greek colonization to become the Roman Byzantium, with all the wealth that could be displayed. This was the city besieged by Philip II of Macedonia in preparation for his invasion of Asia. The Romans, in turn, linked the city to Italy through the Via Egnatia, and the Golden Milestone known as The Million marked the distance to the towns stringed along the road. The Great Palace and the Hippodrome date from that era.

The second part starts with the advent of Emperor Constantine in 330 AD, who renamed the city after himself, Constantinople. As such, it became the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire. Under great emperors like Theodosius, Justinian, and the dynasty of the Comneni, the city expanded again. Constantinople was besieged repeatedly from the 7^th to the 10^th century by the Sassanids from Persia, the Arabs from the Umayyad caliphate, and the Crusaders, who thoroughly sacked the city.

The last and no less important part treats the birth of Istanbul as the capital of the rising Ottoman Empire that started in 1453. Sultans like Suleiman the Magnificent wrote history, and many of today's great buildings were built in those days. To name just a few, there is the Grand Bazaar, Topkapi Palace, and the many mosques, especially those made by Sinan, to rival the Hagia Sofia from the 6^th century.

Instead of a dry and dull account, John Freely takes us by the hand and leads us from one place to the next, often unfolding the many superposed layers of Istanbul's rich history. A handy additional chapter is dedicated to Notes on Monuments and Museums, which the author referred to in previous pages. As another helpful tool in the complicated and long succession of rulers, there is also a complete list of all the Byzantine emperors and Ottoman sultans ending when Turkey as such was born and Atatürk became its leader.

As always, John Freely makes history look simple, and it is a great pleasure to travel through the ancient world in his footsteps. Another excellent book by the same author is Aladdin's Lamp: How Greek Science Came to Europe Through the Islamic World – a treasure trove of knowledge!

In search of the Forum at Serdica (modern Sofia)

As mentioned in an earlier blog (see: Ulpia Serdica, the Roman name for Sofia), today’s capital of Bulgaria is sitting right on top of old Serdica, whose history goes back to 5000 BC. It seems that the Thracians were the first to settle in this valley, where they built the first city, which they named Serdica. During the fourth century BC, it was conquered by Philip II during his expansion of Macedonia’s frontiers. Around 29 BC, the Romans took possession of the city and renamed it Ulpia Serdica. Emperor Trajan established his administrative center here and started an extensive building project. Serdica is said to be the favorite residence of Constantine the Great, who qualified the city as “my Rome.” Unfortunately, the city was destroyed by the Huns in 447 AD. However, it was apparently rebuilt by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, who protected it with sturdy fortress walls that are still visible today. It was in the 14^th century that the city changed its name to Sofia as a homage to the St Sofia Basilica.

Excavations seem to be carried out at a more or less steady pace, although spread randomly over different locations around Sofia. The most recent digs occurred on the parking lot of the Sofia Hotel Balkan and under the square next to the Holy Sunday Church (St Nedelya), a favorite of the Bulgarians. This is where archaeologists hoped to uncover the Roman agora of Serdica. Instead, they found a building from the 3^rd century AD with exceptionally thick foundation walls of more than 1.5 meters thick. As this is three times the average wall thickness, it leads one to believe that it had to support the extra weight, maybe two-floor levels. The house stands along a stretch of the old Decumanus that is particularly wide at this point, measuring about six meters.

In a way, it is disappointing that the Roman Forum has not been found, but on the other hand, not all cities had one, although there must have been some kind of meeting space to centralize public and religious life. So far, of all the cities excavated in the Roman Province of Thracia, only Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv) had a Forum. Archaeologists are not giving up their quest at Serdica as the next possible location may be the underpass of the St Petka Church. Next year’s excavations may shed new light on this theory.

Meanwhile, extensive restoration works have been carried out here as well as at previously uncovered sites, and once they are completed, the remains will be covered with glass to allow the passer-by to have an intimate look at the city’s history. The different locations will be connected in order to create a large open-air museum.

Besides remains of buildings and streets, a hoard of silver coins was discovered at St Nedelya Square in September 2015, hidden in a ceramic pot. The 13 kg treasure counts 2,976 Roman coins from the 1^st and 2^nd century AD and was the prized possession of a certain Silvius Calistus, who carved his name on the pot. This is the largest collection ever found in Serdica and was gathered over a period of one hundred years as the earliest coins were minted under Emperor Vespasian (69-79 AD) and the last under Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD). So far, the coins were identified with the effigies of the Roman Emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonius Pius, but also of some Empresses or rather wives of Emperors like Vibia Sabina (wife of Hadrian), Faustina the Elder (wife of Antoninus Pius), Faustina the Younger (wife of Marcus Aurelius), and Bruttia Crispina (wife of Commodus).

Archaeology in Bulgaria (click on the link) has published a number of photographs showing the excavation sites of Sofia as discovered in 2010, together with a picture of the same spots in 2015 after cleaning and restoration works were carried out.

[Pictures were taken from Archaeology in Bulgaria]

Two more cities of Libya’s Pentapolis: Taucheira and Euesperides

The Libyan Pentapolis included Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais (or Barca), Arsinoe (or Taucheira), and Euesperides (or Berenice), all situated in Cyrenaica in eastern Libya. The region was very fertile and produced wheat and barley, as well as olive oil and wine; the orchards, in turn, were filled with fig and apple trees; sheep and cattle roamed widely; and above all, this was the only place in the world where silphium grew, a natural medicine, a contraceptive, and aphrodisiac.

[Picture from Livius]

I previously developed the history and roles of major cities like Cyrene, Apollonia, and Ptolemais, so this time, I’ll concentrate on Arsinoe or Taucheira (modern Tocra) and Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi) to make the story complete, although I have not personally visited these sites.

Ancient Taucheira lies 70 km to the east of Benghazi and was probably the smallest city of the Pentapolis. It was founded by colonists from Cyrene, not too long after Cyrene’s own foundation. It was Ptolemy II Philadelphus who changed the city’s name to Arsinoe after his sister and wife. Unfortunately, Justinian gave orders to build a new wall around the city, for which stones from earlier constructions were used, in accordance with the typical Byzantine fashion. As a result, not many ruins are left to see, although the general layout is still recognizable in spite of the overgrowth. A good viewpoint is the tower erected by the Italians who occupied Libya early in the last century.

Euesperides, on the other hand, was founded around 525 BC, probably by people from Cyrene or from Barca, on the edge of the lagoon opening towards the sea. The name Euesperides is thought to refer to the mythological gardens of Hesperides. After Ptolemy III married Berenice, the daughter of the governor of Cyrene in 246 BC, the city was named Berenice after his wife. But that was not enough in Ptolemy’s eyes, for he moved the entire city to the present location of Benghazi, although the move may have been triggered by the silting up of the lagoon.

The oldest coins minted in Euesperides are from 480 BC and carry an engraving of Delphi, with on the reverse a picture of the now-disappeared silphium plant. This is a sign that the city enjoyed a certain independence from Cyrene at the time. The constitution of Euesperides was similar to that of Cyrene, meaning that it was ruled by a board of chief magistrates and a council of elders.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the city knew uncertain times, and even the Ptolemaic dynasty was not able to keep a true hold on the Pentapolis. It later became a bishopric and was taken by the Ottomans in 1540. Modern Benghazi is built right on top of Ptolemy’s city, meaning that there is only a slim chance of finding any tangible remains from antiquity.

Antipatreia, a city referring to Antipater?

Today Berat in Albania is specially known for its Ottoman houses, which amazingly have survived the severe communist regime of Enver Hoxha. Not my cup of tea, sorry, but my attention rises when I read a street sign Rruga Antipatrea, a street named after Antipater? It feels like meeting family and of course, I have to explore this source.

Well, it seems that Berat is built on top of ancient Antipatreia, originally settled by a Greek tribe here in northern Epirus in the 6^th century BC. The name Antipatreia apparently leads us back to Cassander who took control of the region in 314 BC. When the Romans arrived in 200 BC, they are said to have razed the city walls and massacred the entire male population. No wonder I see no trace from antiquity. The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II in turn strengthened the walls again in the 5th century and about one hundred years later Emperor Justinian entirely rebuilt them. We had to wait till the 13^th century for a revival of Berat when a fortress was built, and this is now the heart of old Berat with picturesque streets and medieval houses and churches.

Berat is beautifully set on both banks of the Osum River and under this threatening sky, it seems to revive some spirits from the past. A strange encounter to say the least.

Revealing Byllis in ancient Illyria

Before my trip to Albania in search of Illyrian remains (see: A closer look at Illyria), I had never heard of Byllis, for even on the internet, the information is pretty scant and vague. Yet the site of Byllis is one of those where you feel at home and where every ruin is exactly as it should be – a very strange awareness!

The location of Byllis has nothing to envy any antique city and certainly not any Greek or Roman city situated at the border between Illyria and Epirus. Had I studied the life and conquests of Pyrrhus of Epirus more closely (which I’ll do pretty soon), I would inevitably have come to this remarkable city, but at this stage, it is a blank page. The origins of Byllis are still obscure, but according to one theory, it may well have been founded by this very King Pyrrhus, who is still held in high esteem today. Another theory, confirmed by numismatics, pretends, however, that the city was built by Myrmidons returning from the Trojan War.

Byllis is perched high on top of a hill, some 520 meters above sea level, overlooking the Vjosa River and definitely occupying a strong strategic position. The city is surrounded by sturdy Hellenistic walls over a distance of more than two kilometers, 3.5 meters thick, and reaching a height of eight to nine meters; it is interrupted by six fortified entrance gates. No less than four inscriptions testify to the reconstruction by the Byzantine engineer Victorinus, who worked upon instructions of Emperor Justinian (end of 5th-early 6th century AD).  Enough of this wall has survived to underscore the sense of security the inhabitants must have felt. To me, it looks like an eagle’s nest overlooking and commanding the entire valley below.

It is, however, very difficult to label Byllis as Illyrian since the vehicular language was Greek (although most people were bilingual) and all the institutions, officials, fortifications, and city planning were clearly Greek also. The ancient road to Apollonia ran right through Byllis, connecting the city with Macedonia at one end and with Antigonea in Epirus on the other side. Buildings like the stadium and theater, for instance, are pure Hellenistic.

I first walk through so-called storage rooms, but it is unclear why they were built here and who could profit from this storage area. Huge earthen jars and pots, now in shards, remind me of Minoan pottery and were definitely well-secured by the maze of thick-walled rooms.

Pretty soon, I arrive at the recognizable Forum – no doubt built on top of the Hellenistic Agora - surrounded by an L-shaped Stoa, two stories high. The earliest agora has been dated to the second quarter of the 3rd century BC, and the 11.4 meters-wide Stoa ran over a total length of 144 meters: the eastern wing (partially cut out of the rock) was 37 meters long and the southern wing 73 meters. The supporting columns were of Doric order, with hexagonal columns on the ground floor, while Ionic columns on the upper floor supported the roof. The set-up of this Stoa is inspired by the one at Apollonia (see: Along the Via Egnatia: Apollonia). Later, the Byzantines built their basilicas inside and in between these remains, meaning that one has to be alert when looking at stones and walls, but the typical Byzantine crosses on column capitals and altar slabs are very helpful.

Comfortably nestled against the hillside, most of the theater has survived, although it has been used as a quarry by the Byzantines.  The original Greek theater was built in the middle of the 3rd century BC and counted 40 tiers, providing seating for as many as 7,500 spectators, which, based on the size of Byllis, means that visitors from neighboring towns attended the performances. It is said to resemble the theater of Dodona in neighboring Epirus, but I am not in a position to compare. Clearly, this theater has been “updated” by the Romans, who added the skena of which only the foundations remain. A corner of the seating area has been reconstructed to give a better feel of the building, and it is interesting to look around for the many details of decorations for the walls, seats, and the trimmings of the skena. I find it striking that the VIP seats are still present around the orchestra in Greek fashion, meaning that this theater was never adapted to be used for animal fights, as the Romans generally loved to organize. The view from up here is, as always, breathtaking!

Turning away from the steep edge on which the theater stands, are the remains of the arsenal, also from the 3rd century BC, and reconstructed during the 1st century AD using the so-called opus reticulatum technique (square diamond-shaped tufa blocks positioned with their corners downwards). It lies about three meters below the adjacent prytaneion (sacred meeting place) and measures 18.2x6.2 meters. This prytaneion, dedicated to Artemis, in turn, is 20 meters long by 6 meters wide and may well be one of the earliest buildings in the Agora.

Byllis also had a stadium from the end of the third century BC, one of the strangest constructions I have ever seen. Only one side of this stadium has been preserved. From the original length of 190 meters, the bottom seating stairs have survived over 134 meters. Near the theater, we can find as many as 19 steps still in place, but overall, there are no more than three or four. But what makes this track so unique is that it runs alongside a huge public water cistern of 51 meters and 4.2 meters wide. This means that this vaulted cistern with a capacity of about 1,200 m3 was constructed underneath the stadium itself. The water was collected from the roofs of the Stoa and from the stairs on the south side of the stadium. In Byzantine times, Emperor Justinian built his baths right next to this cistern, and the facilities were used till around 550 AD.

Remarkably, some remains of private houses have been excavated as well, both Hellenistic and Roman, which I think is rather unusual. Hellenistic houses are rare, and I’m glad to find a clear layout for one of them. It dates from the third century BC and measures 30m x 25m. It is built around a central courtyard of approximately 10m x 10m surrounded by colonnades behind which we find the various rooms; typically, it had its own well (see also: Olynthus and its houses).

All in all, I find it strange that neither here at Byllis nor at any of the other ancient cities in the area (Apollonia, Brundisium, Buthrotum, Dyrrhachium) so little remains from the Macedonian occupation of Alexander and his father, Philip II, before him. Obviously, neither king was there to build a city as their only purpose was to submit the Illyrians as a whole, but since it was the Greeks who colonized this region in the first place, it is awkward to find only sporadic remains of that period – unless the Romans have thoroughly destroyed the buildings that existed previously in those settlements.

[Click here to see all pictures of Byllis]

A double highway in antiquity

We like to believe that the double highway is an invention from the 20^th century. Well that is not so since remains of what is likely to be the first double highway ever have been discovered in Anavarza, near the village of Dilekkaya in the province of Adana, Turkey.

[Picture from the Hurriyet Daily News]

The origins of the city go back to the days of Assyrians and was successively occupied by the Sassanids, the Byzantines (Emperor Justinian I rebuilt the city after a destructive earthquake in 525 AD and renamed it Justinopolis), the Armenians, and the Ottomans. It still holds traces from Hellenistic and Roman times, which is why it is named Caesarea. The fact that Anavarza was situated on the main road east after leaving the Cilician Gates made it one of the most important cities of Cilicia in the third and fifth centuries, after supplanting nearby Tarsus in the first and second centuries AD.

Unfortunately, Anavarza’s well-preserved remains have been damaged by powerful earthquakes as recent as 1945, during which the three aqueducts that stood there for nearly two thousand years collapsed. Among the ruins are colonnades along two streets, a gymnasium, a triumphal arch, a theater, a stadium, and a fort.

The most striking element, however, is this double-columned highway, approximately 35 meters wide and 2.7 kilometers long. It has been established that columns were of the Corinthian order and were erected at 2.15-meter intervals. At present, work is underway to restore a 250-meter section of this highway in the hope of making it accessible for tourists in a few years.

So far, 1,360 columns have been unearthed, and plans are to restore them. The entrance gate will also be put back together, as no fewer than 500 pieces have been found lying around the monument. Two more streets will be excavated, and archaeologists hope to locate the sewage system as well as the stores on either side of the streets.

Once again, Anavarza may become one of the most magnificent cities from the ancient world after being cleared and restored. After all, this city is larger than Ephesos, for instance! 

It is not unthinkable that Alexander passed through this city, this very highway even, on his way from Tarsus to Issus. In any case, it is a place worth adding to our next travel plans.

Along the Via Egnatia: from Ohrid to Elbasan in Illyria

The Via Egnatia entered Illyria at Ohrid in the east, then ran through Elbasan, from where one arm connected directly to Dyrrhachion (see: Along the Via Egnatia: Dyrrhachion in Illyria). Another one diverged to Apollonia and Antipatrea (Berat) to end also in Dyrrhachion on the Adriatic coast, where ships ferried people and goods to Brundisium (Brindisi) on the Italian side. As mentioned earlier, the Via Egnatia was built by the Romans in the 2nd century AD and served as a major connection between Byzantium and Rome (see: Via Egnatia, a road to remember).  

The first traces of Ohrid go back to the conquest by Philip II of Macedonia, Alexander’s father, when the city was still called Lychnidos. After a first truce with the Illyrian King Bardylis that was sealed in 360 BC by marrying his granddaughter Audata, Philip attacked in force in 357 BC, killing some 7,000 Illyrians. The outcome was that Philip extended the power of Macedonia all the way to Lake Ohrid, a territory that Alexander inherited. After the tumultuous and unstable centuries after Alexander’s death, the Romans arrived in 148 BC. By the end of the 3rd century AD, most classical and Hellenistic temples were torn down by the early Christians, who built their colossal churches right on top. The very name Ohrid, however, appears for the first time in 879 AD.

Today, Ohrid is part of the Republic of Northern Macedonia and a pilgrimage site because of its many early Christian churches. The city counts as many as 365 of them, and the monastery of Saint Naum (established in 905) may well be the oldest.

Well, this takes me too far away from Alexander’s days, of which close to nothing remains. There is, however, the ancient theatre, built in 200 BC, which is the only one from Hellenistic times since all others in the Republic of Northern Macedonia are Roman. The location of this theatre is, as always, sublime, gently nestled between two hills with a breathtaking view over Lake Ohrid. Unfortunately, only the lower section of this theater has been preserved, and we have no estimate of its seating capacity. It was initially used for gladiator fights, but soon served as an execution place for the early Christians. The locals resented these practices, and after the demise of the Roman Empire, they buried the theater under a thick layer of soil. This is actually the part we are seeing today, which was discovered by accident in the 1980s during construction works.

However, I have not seen any traces of the Via Egnatia here at Ohrid. It is almost impossible to enter the city without passing through one of the two gates in the defensive walls from the 10th century, which the Ottomans continued to use, so this may be a place to look for this famous road.

I had more luck at Elbasan, where the route of the Via Egnatia has been clearly picked up and is even signposted as “The Rehabilitation of the Egnatia Road was funded by the European Union”. It runs right through the city center, and I wonder whether someone did search for its original pavement. It now blends in with the neighboring streets, although it has been established to match the Roman Decumanus of Elbasan. Well, it is exciting anyway to find some traces!

Luckily, Elbasan has more to offer. Outside the city walls, one cannot miss the remains of a Byzantine Basilica from the 5th-6th century, where mosaic floors and painted walls were found. Today, it is a park where the locals linger in the shade of the trees and drink from the adjacent well, decorated with slabs recuperated from the basilica. The city walls here are quite impressive and in a good state of conservation. The first to protect the city was obviously the Romans, who, in the 3rd or 4th century, built a substantial fortress with towers. Later, Emperor Justinian improved the fortifications, which were, however, of no use against the repeated attacks of the Huns and other invaders from the north. Reconstruction started under Sultan Mehmet II in 1466, and Elbasan remained a main Ottoman center for the next 450 years or so. This means that these sturdy walls were maintained till the early 20th century, and it shows.

So, in the end, there is still a lot of work to do in order to map this famous Via Egnatia. I hope that in time, more of its itinerary and pavement will surface.

[Click here to see all my pictures of Ohrid]

Apollonia in Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) after Alexander

In 322 BC, the year after Alexander’s death, Ptolemy I, who had established himself as ruler of Egypt, conquered five Libyan cities. They are collectively known as the Pentapolis and include, besides Cyrene, the cities of Apollonia, Ptolemais or Barca, Arsinoe or Taucheira (modern Tocra), and Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi). In those days, Cyrenaica was part of greater Egypt and often simply assimilated into Egypt itself. The region was very fertile and produced wheat and barley, as well as olive oil and wine; the orchards in turn were filled with fig and apple-trees; sheep and cattle roamed widely; and above all, this was the only place in the world where silphium grew, a natural medicine, a contraceptive and aphrodisiac.

In an earlier post, I already wrote about Cyrene (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks), so this time I’ll concentrate on Apollonia, now renamed Susa in today’s eastern Libya, the most obvious choice since it was the harbor for majestic Cyrene, only some twenty kilometers further inland.

Apollonia was founded by Greek colonists as early as the 7th century BC, and during the fourth century BC, the harbor facilities were widely improved, sheltering the berths against the strong northern winds. On the west side, a new inland port was constructed, protected by two towers, while on the most eastern island, a lighthouse was installed. It was only in the first century BC that Apollonia became a city in its own right. Not for long, however, since upon Ptolemy III’s death in 96 BC the entire Pentapolis, including Cyrene and Apollonia, was bequeathed to the Romans, who just moved a step closer to Egypt itself …

Today’s visitor to Apollonia will only find half of the antique city as the other half lies underwater. Northern Africa has suffered badly from a devastating earthquake that occurred in 365 AD, causing the entire coastline to drop by four meters. The phenomenon is clearly visible here in Apollonia, where the old harbor is entirely drowned, and the three offshore islands are all that remains of the northern pier. This explains why the city doesn’t have the appeal of a harbor, and certainly not one to serve a city as important as Cyrene. Apparently, shipwrecks from the fourth century BC have been located in the antique harbor where French archaeologists were diving during my visit in 2010. I hate to think about what has happened since.

Anyway, Apollonia’s remains are mainly Byzantine, with three Basilicas: the western Basilica with three naves; the central Basilica with five naves; and to the far end, the eastern Basilica, the largest, from the 6th century, with an exceptional Baptistery because it has six steps instead of the normal three. My local guide tells me that in the Byzantine era, the purpose of this Baptistery was not to baptize people in order to convert them but to receive forgiveness for their sins. One submersion would cleanse the believer from small sins, but for more serious offenses, five or six submersions would be required. I never heard of this theory, but it may be a logical explanation for the great number of baptisteries in these churches.

Next to the central Basilica are the remains of a Roman Bath, whose layout, except for the entrance gate, is rather confusing. That is no surprise when you think of how the Byzantines liked to remodel Roman buildings or re-use their stones elsewhere.

Alongside the Byzantine city wall and approximately across from the Roman Baths, lies the Palace of the Dux, the Byzantine governor Hekobolius from the 6th century, i.e., the time when Apollonia was the capital of the Pentapolis. The palace itself does not offer much, but the story that goes with it is rather interesting. For nearly six years, this Hekobolius kept an extremely good-looking mistress called Theodora. One day, she happened to be dancing in Constantinople for Emperor Justinian, who fell in love head over heels and married her soon after. This is how Empress Theodora arrived at the imperial court, where she lived happily ever after … Well, this marriage lasted about twenty years, and Theodora died before Justinian, on 28 June 548.

More remains of Apollonia have not yet been excavated, including the Acropolis at the far end of the site. Outside the city wall lies the inevitable Roman theater (although built on an earlier Greek one) that now lies near the shoreline. According to an inscription found near the podium, it was built in 92 AD during the reign of Emperor Domitian. This is the best-preserved theater of the Cyrenaica despite being used as a quarry by the Byzantines.

A last glance over Apollonia makes me realize that the restored columns of the different Basilicas are the most notable features, but that is primarily because of their texture. All these columns are made of cipolin marble, imported from the island of Euboea, off the coast of eastern Greece. Cipolin is the Italian name for onions and is used to describe this kind of marble, which, like onion skins, appears in green-grayish streaks – a very appropriate name, I must say.

Walking back along the coastline, my attention is drawn towards four large round pits carved in the rock. These pits were used to marinate fish in order to make the famous garum or fish paste, a delicacy for the Romans. How interesting!