Who were the Thracians?

A recurrent question that keeps popping up. The Thracians are often seen as a barbarian tribe north of Macedonia. In ancient Greece, everyone non-Greek was labeled as Barbarian and the word does not answer our concept of uncivilized. 

The Thracians had no writing, meaning that we had to depend on what had been described by Greek and later Roman authors. Their works of art, however, are of the highest quality of craftsmanship. The most striking example is the bronze head of King Seuthes III, who ruled from 331 until 300 BC, i.e., after Alexander set out for Asia (see: Seuthes III, King of Thrace).

[Picture from Getty.edu]

The head of Seuthes steals the show at every exhibition. If you live in the Los Angeles area or are traveling that way soon, there is a unique opportunity to see this masterpiece for yourself at the Getty Villa in Malibu from November 4, 2024, until March 3, 2025. The exhibition covers a wide area as announced by its full title: Ancient Thrace and the Classical World: Treasures from Bulgaria Romania and Greece. 

Thracia’s superb gold, silver, and bronze works of art travel the world on many occasions, and it is a unique opportunity to explore the many facets of Thracian life in all its forms and shapes. 

I was lucky to discover the Thracian treasures of Bulgaria back in 2002 when Brussels hosted a special exhibition organized by Europalia at the Palais des Beaux-Arts. “L’or des Thraces. Trésors de Bulgarie” turned out to be a true revelation of art going back thousands of years, with artifacts in a typical combination of silver and gold. I remember staring in awe at the map of Bulgaria, crowded with unfamiliar names of tombs and locations. 

The title of the exhibition at the Getty Villa clearly includes treasures from Romania and Greece. 

I developed Thracian Romania in a blogpost about Dacia, the name given by Emperor Trajan (see: Dacia before Alexander). 

Thracian presence in what’s now eastern Greece is treated in two separate posts, Thracian tomb at Doxipara and What is the Peraia of Samothrace that explores Mesembria. 

For all aficionados, Getty airs a special talk about “Who were the Thracians” on November 19, 2024, at 12 pm Pacific Time via Zoom. 

Happy times ahead!

The rich history of olive oil

Most of us believe that the olive tree originated in Greece from where it spread over the entire Mediterranean. It thus may come as a surprise to learn that the oldest ones were found in ancient Israel around 5,000 BC. The olive oil was exported to Greece and Egypt until Crete and Cyprus started to produce their own, and eventually the production reached mainland Greece. The Greek and Phoenician colonists, in turn, introduced the olive tree to Italy, Iberia, and North Africa. In the wake of Alexander’s conquests and the subsequent Roman occupations, the olive tree became familiar in those lands, boosting warm summers and little rainfall. 

Olive trees obviously were most famous for their oil. The Greeks believed that the earlier they pressed the olives, the finer the quality of the oil was as they were still green. However, if they let them ripen longer till they were black, they would produce more oil. Then and now, the best quality oil came from the first pressing. 

Generally, the olives were crushed underfoot – a process that survived till far into the 20^th century. Several examples of these “presses” have survived, such as those found at Mesembria in Eastern Greece. A large slab or a terracotta lid on an earthen pot was perforated with holes, and the crusher would press the fruit by trampling the olives with his feet. The pulp was collected in a basin or jar underneath the lid and was then filtered. 

The earliest presses consisted of a large round millstone, usually pulled by a donkey. Those stones would roll over the olives poured into a circular container. The resulting pulp was then filtered through stacked baskets and pressed with a heavy rock placed on top. A good example has been found in Olynthus. Although the process may sound rather primitive, the end result was pretty satisfactory. 

It is not rare to find olive trees amongst fruit trees, and the field owners would let some sheep graze the groves to keep them free of grass and weeds. Moreover, the residue of the oil pressing process could be used as feed for the pigs. 

The demand for olive oil grew with the Roman Empire's expansion, and eventually, Constantinople became one of the leading importers.  Also, vineyards and olive farms arose in Syria and Cilicia, and they reached the peak of their capacity in the 3^rd-5^th century AD. In any case, the principal producers were located in the regions of Attica in Greece, Italy, Baetica in Spain, Cyrenaica in Libya, Venafrum in Italy, and the island of Samos. To meet the high demand for oil, the Romans developed screw presses which were more performing to crush the olives. In those days, it is believed that oil production reached such a high level that we had to wait till the 19th century to see it improved. 

Olive oil was and remains an essential ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine. However, many other implementations were known, such as fuel for the lamps or a component to make perfumes. Another application was to cleanse the body of the Greek and Roman athletes from dirt and sweat using a strigil. 

The most popular way to store and transport the oil was the common amphora, which came in all shapes and forms depending on their country of origin, the manufacturer and the merchant. 

Beyond the success story of the olive oil, the tree acquired a sacred significance when the olive branch became a sign of peace and a crown for the winners at the ancient Olympic Games. 

The olive branch was very favorite in Classical Athens, where the tree was considered a gift from Athena. The sacred tree stood on the Acropolis close to the Erechtheion and has been replaced with a new version in modern times. Pilgrims also carried olive branches on their way to the oracle at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. 

This all means that the importance of the olive tree reached far beyond oil extraction and usage.

Excavations in the Peraia of Samothrace

Except for the greater Athens area, Greece is generally very much underrated when we consider its wealth of archaeological sites. Most people and tourists limit their visit to Attica, extending it possibly to Delphi and the Monasteries of the Meteors to the north and a few antique cities in the northern Peloponnesus. Since the discovery of  King Philip’s tomb in Vergina (ancient Aegae) and the rekindled interest in Alexander the Great in his hometown of Pella, Thessaloniki has become another hub of interest. Otherwise, much of mainland Greece remains to be explored. 

[Picture Credit Peraiao of Samothrace Project from Archaeology News Network]

One such ignored region is the Peraia of Samothrace, i.e., a series of colonies founded by Samothrace along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thracia north of the island. In an earlier blog (see: What is the Peraia of Samothrace?) I mentioned the major settlements by name: Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, which were founded from the 6^th century BC onward. The towns of Tempira and Charakoma, on the other hand, date from Roman times. 

At present, a project has been started to examine the topography of the Peraia of Samothrace and to survey sites located further inland. Most of them have been excluded from archaeological excavations that were only concentrated on the cities of Maroneia and Zone, but Drys and Sale clearly deserve special attention since they were the most important and longest-lived settlements. 

The first surveys were started in October 2020 but were soon interrupted because of the pandemic. The project will continue in 2021 focusing on archaeological research proper, geophysical survey, and remote sensing. Complementary work will include the study of ancient sources, historical maps, and whatever literature is available. Small artifacts in stone, bits of ceramics, shells, and blades have been collected so far and provide clues as to the sites to dig. Most of the fieldwork is expected to be completed this year but the parties involved are facing a huge task. 

The Peraia of Samothrace was of strategic interest in particular for the hinterland of Thracia, which by itself is worth exploring as well (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece). Today the province of Thracia is part of eastern Greece - a country repeatedly conquered by Macedonian kings from Philip II to Philip V and later on by the Romans (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus). The rich civilizations that once thrived here (including the Ottomans in more recent times) deserve to be studied very closely. 

The progress of the planned survey is updated regularly and can be followed on www.peraiasamothraceproject.gr and on the project's Twitter account.

What is the Peraia of Samothrace?

The Peraia of Samothrace translates as “the land opposite Samothrace” and refers to a series of colonies founded by Samothrace on the mainland north of the island, in this case along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thrace and more precisely between the Hebrus River and Mount Ismaros. It includes several settlements such as Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, founded from the 6^th century BC onward, whereas Tempira and Charakoma date from Roman times. Not all of these towns have been located or excavated, meaning we are moving in rather uncharted territory.

The area is interesting, however, because it was conquered by Philip II of Macedonia when he prepared his invasion of Asia. This allowed Alexander to march unopposed through this part of Thracia when he set out to cross the Hellespont after his father’s assassination.

Zone, which for some time was thought to be Mesimvria as described by Herodotus, is among the most significant towns that reached its peak during the 5^th-4^th century BC. Its decline set in after Alexander’s death with the constant Macedonian wars, until it became part of the Roman Empire, after which the city was abandoned during the 5^th century AD. Today, this archaeological site goes by the double name of Zone-Mesembria.

Excavations have brought to light Zone’s city walls as well as the smaller Hellenistic walls from that period when the city had shrunk to a square area in the southwest corner. Besides private houses and streets following the Hippodamian plan, the two most remarkable buildings are the Temple of Apollo and the House of the Amphorae.

Not much of the temple from the 6^th century BC is left standing. It measures 15 x 9 meters with a small pronaos and a cella resting on a three-stepped crepis. It has been established that it stood inside a larger complex (35 x 45 meters) with a paved courtyard and surrounded by a Stoa. The recent discovery of about 300 potsherds in and around this Temple of Apollo, however, makes it one of the most important discoveries because these potsherds carried inscriptions in Thracian. The language of the Thracians, which is thought to be closely related to Greek and uses Greek characters, is not known and has not yet been deciphered. Archaeologists have their work cut out for this is the largest collection of Thracian writings ever found.

The House of the Amphorae contains another unique treasure: a puzzling floor made from 188 amphorae turned upside down. They were aligned in such a way that all the pointed bottoms stood at the same level, notwithstanding the size of each amphora. This construction, dating from as early as the 6^th-5^th century BC, represents a rare method to protect the earthen floor against the dampness of the underlying soil. It sounds unbelievable that people some 2,500 years ago knew how to avoid groundwater destroying the foundations and floors of their residences – not to mention the problem with arthritis and rheumatism! The remains of a wide water gutter next to the house clearly illustrate the humidity problem.

In at least two locations, we can find remains of old wine presses. These were simple affairs using a lid on a huge jar or a slab above a quarried rectangular pit riddled with holes. The process was still known in the last century when people used to trample the grapes with their feet, squeezing the juice that would drip into the container underneath as the pulp would stay on top of the lid.

The fortification walls of Zone are interesting elements as well. They were reinforced by towers, and a close look at the walls reveals how different sections were built using different techniques – probably rebuilt and reinforced over time. The West Gate, the only entrance to the city, has also been found and cleared.

Zone is beyond doubt a town like many in southeastern Thrace, and its excavation has shed light on the daily life of its inhabitants from the Classical era to Hellenistic and even Roman times. The town provides an excellent insight into its wealth with the large houses, wine production centers, and kilns. This is not surprising given that the country was located on important communication routes (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara). In an earlier blog about the site of Halka Bunar in Bulgaria (see: Macedonia of Philip was also part of Bulgaria), I mentioned the roads that ran from the western Balkans to the coast of the Black Sea and Byzantium in the east, passing through Serdica and Philippopolis, and from Abdera and Mesembria across the Rhodope Mountains all the way to Seuthopolis.

Today, this part of the world has lost its importance and seems to regress into the oblivion of time. With civilizations rising and falling, roads and cities with their cultural significance and economic wealth inevitably leave their imprint. We only have to make the effort to look for it.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Zone-Mesembria]

Philip's Macedonia also included today’s Bulgaria

Pushing aside the ongoing discussions between Greek Macedonia and the  Republic of Northern Macedonia, it is time to focus on Bulgaria, which was once part of the realm created by Philip II of Macedonia.

It seems that finally, the FHW (Foundation of Hellenistic Work) and the NAIM-BAS (the Archaeological Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Sofia) are working together on the excavations at Halka Bunar, just northeast of Plovdiv, i.e., the city of Philippopolis founded by Philip II. In his days, the Odrysian Thracians lived here, and today’s closest big city is Stara Zagora, which the Romans called Augusta Traiana.

It is one of those forgotten corners of archaeology, at least in our Western world, for we have little or no idea of all the excavations that occurred and still occur in Bulgaria. Halka Bunar was discovered by accident, as is usually the case, in 1999. Since then, four ceramic kilns, a series of loom weights, and great quantities of ceramics, both local and imported Greek and commercial amphorae (carrying wine from Knidos in today’s southwestern Turkey), were found next to figurines and coins. These coins indicate that the site flourished mainly around the end of the 4th century/early 3rd century BC since they were stamped with the effigies of Philip II, Seuthes III, Lysimachos, Cassander, and Demetrios-Poliorcetes – another proof that Halka Bunar maintained constant and close contact with Macedonia and the Greek colonies in Thracia.

More importantly, Halka Bunar was located almost exactly at the crossroads of important Roman roads, which probably followed older Hellenistic or Classical routes of communication. One of these roads ran from the western Balkans to the coast of the Black Sea and Byzantium in the east, as it passed through Serdica and Philippopolis. The other road ran up from Abdera and Mesembria on the Aegean coast in northeastern Greece, crossing the Rhodopes Mountains (the backbone of today’s Bulgaria) all the way to Seuthopolis, the Thracian capital city founded by Seuthes III near today’s Kazanlak in Bulgaria.



Besides what is already well-known about the Greek colonies along the coast of the Black Sea, little do we know about the Greek influence in this part of Bulgaria, and the excavation here in the area of the Odrysian Thracians hopefully, will shed some light on their Hellenization and that of the neighboring peoples.

Wait and see what this will reveal …