The tomb of Olympias found?

Last month, the Greek City Times published an article with the resonating title “Professor Bidas: Tomb of Alexander the Great’s mother was found in Korinos.” The news is worth making headlines, and I’m puzzled because it didn’t. 

It is all about one of the tombs of Korinos, some 13 kilometers south of Pydna. These tombs were discovered back in 1860 by the French archaeologists L Heuzey and H Domet, who named them A and B. Both tombs had been plundered in antiquity, and the artifacts left behind were recuperated by Heuzey to be sent to the Louvre in Paris. The tombs, which were covered by a tumulus, are dated to the 4th century BC. 

[Entrance to the tomb by Daumet 1855. Picture from Greek City Times]

In 1991, the Greek archaeologist, M Besios, restarted the excavations and concentrated on the largest tomb. The burial complex is 22 meters long compared to the 9.5 meters of King Philip’s tomb in Aegae. The size alone is enough to raise the question of the possible occupant of such a large gravesite. 

As he uncovered a rare construction of three consecutive burial chambers, M Besios concluded that the grave was intended for an important person. He found a marble case in the burial chamber that once held the vessel with the cremated remains on the east side. This result indicates that the remains belonged to a woman since women were buried with their heads facing east. 

The logical conclusion was that this tomb must have belonged to Queen Olympias. She had been assassinated by Cassander in 316 BC at the issue of the siege of Pydna and buried outside the city. 

At the tomb's entrance are the building remains of what seems to refer to a temple in honor of the deceased. Three epitaphs were found in the area. They mention the Aiakides, who were relatives of Olympias living in the outskirts of Pydna. A good reason for choosing this location for the burial. Remarkably, one of the epitaphs refers to a memorial dedicated to Neoptolemus I that stood opposite the tomb attributed to his daughter Olympias, the spouse of Philip II of Macedon. A wide road separated both constructions. 

In light of the above, Emeritus Professor Athanasios Bidas claimed to have located the tomb of Queen Olympias here in Korinos (see also: Is the Mother of Alexander the Great in the Tomb at Kasta Hill near Amphipolis?) The announcement was made public in December 2019, but competent authorities in Greece remain reticent to accept his argumentation. 

This lack of reaction is as surprising as the one that followed the discovery of the (doubtful) grave of Alexander the Great in Siwah in 1995. At that time, archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi substantiated her finds, but her digging permit was blocked by the Greek government as soon as she did. They sent an advisor of the Greek Embassy to the Egyptian government to withdraw her excavation permit and prevent her further excavations of the tomb. Twenty-five years later, Liana Souvaltzi still fights to return to Siwah and resume her excavations. 

It makes one wonder if nobody in the world wants to know the truth about what happened to the remains of Alexander the Great, his mother Olympias, his wife Roxane and their son Alexander IV, as well as those of Heracles and his mother, Barsine. Until now, it remains unsure whether the tomb of the young prince discovered next to the grave of Philip in Aegae belongs to Alexander IV.

Project for a virtual Museum of Alexander the Great in Vergina

The renewed excavations around the Royal Palace of ancient Aegae and the adjacent theater seem to have reached completion (see: At last, the Palace of Aegae reopens to the public).

For many years, this area was widely neglected by tourists because the remains offered a rather poor idea of the wealth and beauty the Palace once displayed. Besides, it stood in the shadow of the marvelous exhibition space inside the Great Tumulus where the unlooted grave of Philip II was discovered in the 1970s as well as the tomb of a young prince attributed to Alexander IV, the son of Alexander the Great.

However, Vergina (the modern name for Aegae) has much more to offer because the ancient city was widespread. In an attempt to connect the many known elements of Aegae, a new building has been constructed to become the entrance to what is called the Polycentric Museum. This space will house the statues and sculptures that were unearthed in the many sanctuaries of the city. It will also be used for temporary exhibitions and, most importantly, it will contain a virtual museum named “Alexander the Great: from Aigai to the World” – a true honor to their world-famous citizen! Please also read the update The Palace of Aegae/Vergina in full glory.

Honestly, it is about time that all the hitherto discovered remains are truly put on the map and disclosed to the general public. Many of the tombs and sanctuaries were off-limits for years and the recent financial crisis that hit Greece did not help. It was important for Aegae to be recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, which eventually led to an EU funding of 4.5 million euros. Finally, the proud citizens of Vergina consider that their city played an important role in European civilization. Nicely said, but it was Alexander’s doing and not the work of Aegae or Pella!

However, their argumentation does not really matter. What really counts is the fact that by now all the known elements of Aegae are finally brought together, for they are many!

Take, for instance, the Sanctuary of Eucleia from the 4^th century BC with the grave of Eurydice, Alexander’s grandmother, which was always closed to the public. It further consists of a small temple from Hellenistic times, two Stoas, and at least three other burial sites of high-placed people. Another Sanctuary was dedicated to Cybele, the mother of the gods, of which very little remains. Not much has been disclosed about the excavations in and around the private houses from the Hellenistic era, and only part of the city walls have been exposed.

The attention of archaeologists was focused mainly on the great number of necropolises (see: More Royal Tombs found at Aegae) located to the east of the Great Tumulus containing the grave of Philip. Here we find several clusters of necropolis, such as the cluster of the Queens, the cluster of the Temerid dynasty, the cluster of Heuzy and Bella, the general cemetery of the tumuli (apparently still to be investigated further), the archaic necropolis, and the necropolis from the classical period. They certainly have their work still cut out!

A masterpiece of Hellenistic art

A while ago, the bronze statue of The Boxer at Rest made headlines in The Greek Reporter. It certainly is one of the most lifelike and realistic masterpieces from antiquity that has survived the recycling melting ovens.

Sadly, no picture of this exceptional bronze does any credit to what it truly embodies, neither the whole statue nor the details.

[Picture from The Greek Reporter]

Nowadays, this amazing sculpture is kept at the Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme in Rome, Italy. Unfortunately, I couldn’t find out how it is being presented as it certainly deserves a royal space of its own.

I was very fortunate to see it for myself a few years ago in Florence, Italy as part of the exhibition “Power and Pathos, Bronze Sculpture of the Hellenistic World”. The boxer left a deep impression as he commanded attention and respect.

He was placed on the floor like an occasional visitor, unwinding after the intense fight he just went through. His body showed the many scars and cuts left by his opponent. His hands were still wrapped in leather strips meant to protect them but also to inflict as many injuries as possible to his adversary. His oozing wounds colored red with blood (red bronze inserts) illustrated how fierce and unforgiving the fight must have been.

The combat apparently just finished, and the fighter starts to relax. Obviously, the adrenaline is still rushing through his veins and it seems he could jump into fighting mode at the first wrong sparkle from the onlookers. Walking around him, one has to tread with care. He is so life-like that he could look up at you at any moment! (see: A grand collection of Greek bronze masterpieces)

The bronze was found buried in the gardens of the Palazzo Quirinale in Rome in 1885. Admirers of art or lovers of boxing-fights may have wanted to safeguard the statue for better times, whatever their motives or circumstances. We know nothing about the origin of this marvelous boxer. The sculptor remains anonymous and the name of the commissioner, who must have been a wealthy man, is still unknown.

The statue has been dated to 330-50 BC, which is, in fact, the entire Hellenistic era. We have only a few such examples whereas Hellenism must have produced countless numbers of magnificent sculptures. 

With a twist of my mind, I am reminded of the lifelike statues of Alexander and Craterus on a lion hunt that stood in Delphi (see: An unexpected encounter with Alexander at Delphi). It is said that when Cassander visited this work of art and saw Alexander standing in the dim light, he became “so terrified that his body shuddered and trembled” according to Plutarch. Cassander is said to have nearly fainted as the lifelike Alexander undoubtedly stared back at him. Plutarch further adds that it took Cassander a long time to recover.

His fear for Alexander and his wrath must have run very deep. Of course, he had every reason to be afraid. After all, he had murdered Alexander’s mother Olympias, wife Roxane, son Alexander IV, his long-time mistress Barsine and her son Heracles. With so much blood on his hands, one may wonder whether Cassander could sleep at night. He was a profoundly frustrated and evil man and does not deserve any consideration or pity.

Thessaloniki continues writing history

Thessaloniki as such did not exist in Alexander’s days. The city was founded eight years after his death by Cassander, the eldest son of Antipater, Regent of Macedonia. Those were turbulent years and on his deathbed Antipater appointed Polyperchon as his successor instead of his own son, Cassander. That did not go down well with Cassander who simply murdered the old general. Well, we know that he mercilessly murdered all those who were in his way to the throne of Macedonia. Olympias, Alexander’s mother was assassinated in 316 BC. Roxane, his widow, and young Alexander IV, his legitimate heir to the throne, were poisoned upon his orders some six years later. About the same time, Heracles, Alexander’s son by his mistress Barsine was eliminated also.

The thirst for power clearly went to Cassander’s head and to legitimize his position inside the Argead Dynasty, he took Thessalonica , Alexander’s half-sister as his wife and self-proclaimed himself as king of Macedonia. As such he ruled from 305 till 297 BC and Thessalonica  gave him three sons, Philip, Antipater and Alexander. The city of Thessaloniki was named after her.

Because of its location, it soon became and still is one of the most populous and wealthy cities of Macedonia. When the Romans conquered Macedonia in 168 BC, it developed into an important hub on the Via Egnatia that connected Europe to Asia and prospered thanks to its spacious harbor. Consequently, it is not surprising that most of the remains of Thessaloniki  date from the heydays of the Roman Era.

Of course, there are testimonies left by the Ottomans who ruled from 1430 until 1912 when the city got involved in the Balkan War and gained its independence. The fire of 1917 devastated two third of Thessaloniki’s historic center, leaving 77,000 people homeless but exposing the Forum and its adjacent Odeon in return. Eventually, the city was rebuilt on a grand scale with little or no consideration for its antique legacy.

For the past ten years or so, Thessaloniki  is building a metro line through the city standing right on top of its antique levels, archaeologists have their work cut out. 

For these metro works, the underground of major streets has been exposed, especially parts of the ancient Via Egnatia and the Decumanus Maximus. Many stretches like the old commercial heart of the city have survived in amazingly good conditions.

In an ideal world, a metro station could be combined with an underground museum. This is a great idea as locals and tourists could enjoy a close up look at the glorious past of Thessaloniki  but skeptics declare that the two are not compatible as it is, for instance, impossible to move antique roads.

Smaller artifacts labeled as movable finds count 300,000 pieces, 50,000 of which are ancient coins. Plans are to exhibit at least part of these finds in two completed metro stations, probably Panepistimio and Papafi stations.

The metro should be completed by 2020 but repeated discussions about archaeological salvage and preservation regularly bring the works to a standstill. Besides, many local shopkeepers and residents are fed-up with the ongoing inconveniences and all they want is to be put out of their misery.

Who will win this battle?

[Picture of the Decumanus Maximus, Venizelos Station (Credit: Greek Ministry of Culture]

Traces of Philip III Arrhidaeus in Egypt

As strange as it may seem, archaeologists have discovered several inscriptions praising Pharaoh Arrhideus/Philip III and the crocodile god of the Nile, Sobek.

Since Alexander the Great had not made any arrangements for his succession, the Macedonian army elected his half-brother to be their new king. As we know, the succession of Alexander led to many years of lengthy bickering and fights among his generals, the Diadochi, turning into hopeless wars that lasted for nearly forty years.

Arrhideus/Philip III was only king in name since he was retarded and hence unfit to rule Alexander’s huge empire. Not much literature or artwork is known, and traces of his “rule” are scant.

Strangely enough, a relief showing the face of Pharaoh Arrhideus/Philip III has been discovered at the unusual double temple of  Kom Ombo dedicated to the god Sobek, the god of fertility, and the falcon god Haroeris. The archaeologists also found his name inscribed in hieroglyphs on an 83 x 55 cm slab.

Although the temple is resting on a much older structure, the remains we know today, with its twin entrances and symmetrical layout was, probably started by Ptolemy VI. The Ptolemys remained present over the centuries as we also find a fine relief of Ptolemy XII, the father of the famous Cleopatra VII.

Another trace of Arrhideus/Philip III is found in the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Besides a peristyle court of Thutmosis III, it contains a barque sanctuary filled with his granite naos. This could be the picture Olaf Kaper showed during his lecture in 2010 (see: Alexander the Great in Egypt. Lecture of 24 November 2010).

The island of Samothrace, finally, proudly displays a joint dedication of Arrhideus/Philip III and Alexander IV. It was part of a marble Doric building that carried the inscription “King Philip [and] Alexander to the Great Gods,” a confirmation that both the son of Alexander the Great and his half-brother “officially” ruled on equal terms (see: A Dedication of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV).

[Top picture: Philip III as pharaoh in Karnak is from Wikipedia]

[Bottom picture: Sanctuary of Philip III from Egypt Museum]

A Dedication of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV

Strolling through the temporary exhibition about Samothrace at the New Acropolis Museum in Athens, I was surprised to find two odd-looking objects labeled as Dedications of Philip III and Alexander IV.

When Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, there was no heir to the throne of the King of Asia, and his generals had a rough time agreeing on a successor. Alexander’s son with Roxane had not been born yet, and his earlier son with Barsine was never recognized by Alexander. After many flaring discussions, it was decided that Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother Arrhidaeus would share the throne with Roxane’s baby boy under the respective names of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV. Neither was to rule as king, at least not at this very early stage.

Here at the museum, this is the first time I have seen artifacts tied to both kings, and I wonder whether these are the only ones. The Dedication dates from between 323, when their co-kingship was implemented, and 317 BC, the year in which Philip III Arrhidaeus was brutally murdered by Olympias.

Samothrace is, of course, the place where Philip II and Olympias, Alexander’s parents, met during an initiation ceremony to the sacred rites of the most secret Mysteries, but why is this island so important that even young Alexander IV and his simple-minded uncle honor it with a dedication of their own?

According to Diodorus, initiation at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods promised an opportunity to “become a better and more pious person.” Divine forces of earth, sky, and sea played a fundamental role in the mysteries that shrouded (and are still shrouding) the island. From as early as the 7^th century BC all the way down to the 4^th century AD, the Sanctuary provided insight into spiritual, political, and cultural life. The intense activity is shown through the host of monuments erected here since they are all set in selective locations throughout the landscape to enhance the initiates’ experience.

     

 

The marble Doric building where the Dedication of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV was found would have been the first significant construction the visitor saw when entering the Sanctuary. It stood nine meters high and welcomed the pilgrims with the dedicatory inscription reading “King Philip [and] Alexander to the Great Gods,” a proof – if needed – that both kings ruled equally. I did not find the inscription at the museum; only a fragment of a monumental eagle’s head and a wing bit from the two large eagles that once adorned the construction, probably as acroteria. The Dedication monument was the work of local craftsmen who used two different kinds of marble. For the façade, which counted six columns, Pentelic marble from Attica had the preference, while the sides and back marble came from the nearby island of Thasos, as was common elsewhere in Samothrace. The open chamber is said to have preserved its mosaic floor with a central panel unusually made of rhomboid marble tesserae, which I have not seen at the museum but may still be in situ.

The construction of such a significant monument by the two kings or whoever acted on their behalf was meant to reinforce their rightful succession to Alexander the Great. Using Pentelic marble for its façade was an iconic reference to other great monuments in Athens and to Athenian dedications in other locations. To the visitors of those days, this Dedication would also be seen as Macedonia’s claim to power over mainland Greece.

After this exciting discovery, I spent more time investigating the other artifacts to learn more about Samothrace. The most valuable tools are an excellent reconstruction of the site and a clear map of all the pertaining buildings.

I find another intriguing testimony of Alexander’s heritage in one of the showcases: a tiny gold applique of a lion of Achaemenid origin once inlaid with precious stones. It has been dated to the 4^th century BC and may be a trophy one of his soldiers brought back from Persia.

There is also the top part of a stele containing a dedication of King Lysimachos of Thrace from between 288 and 281 BC. Based on the surviving first fifteen lines, Lysimachos is honored for restoring sacred lands on the mainland initially granted to Samothrace by either Philip II and Alexander the Great or Philip Arrhidaeus III and Alexander IV. Boundary stones for said sacred land have been found near Alexandroupolis in Greece. Lysimachos is also honored as a friend and benefactor of Samothrace, hence his title of Lysimachus Euergetes as inscribed on the altar erected in his honor and used during annual festivals.

Just a few years later, between 285 and 281 BC, Ptolemy II built a Propylon, one of the most lavishly decorated entrance buildings from Hellenistic times. This must have been an impressive monument since the metopes were an elegant succession of alternating 100 rosettes and 104 garlanded bucrania or ox skulls. It makes you wonder about the richness of the other details.

To remain with the Ptolemaic dynasty, Arsinoe II built a splendid Rotunda at the Sanctuary. It is not clear, however, whether this Rotunda was made while she was married to Lysimachos of Thrace, mentioned above, and her first husband (288-281 BC) or after she became the wife of her brother Ptolemy II, her third husband (273-270 BC). The meaning of the Dedication thus varies accordingly. If the Rotunda was built during her marriage with Lysimachos, it might stand for the alliance of Egypt with Thrace and the northern Aegean. If erected when she married her brother, it could be meant to thank Samothrace for sheltering her after fleeing from her second husband, Ptolemy Keraunas. This Rotunda was also decorated with reliefs of alternating rosettes and bucrania, a favorite theme. A lovely rosette and a strange-looking round and flat tile from the roof are exhibited here.

Much more recent is the Dedication to the Great Gods of Samothrace by the Thessalian League from 170-140 BC. It tells us that their embassy was led by Damothoinos, son of Leontomenes and a member of a prominent family from Pherae; he was the leader of the league in 161/160 BC. This Dedication shows the importance of the Thessalian League after being freed from Macedonian rule.

The best-known sculpture from Samothrace is the famous Nike, now at the Louvre and recently restored and cleaned for the pleasure of our eyes! It has been dated to the 2^nd century BC and was a gift from the people of Rhodes to thank the gods who protected seafarers and granted them victory in war, maybe in commemoration of the Battle of Myonnissos or the victory over Antiochus III at Side in 190 BC.

Yet the Athens exhibition shows another Nike statue less flashy than this famous one, which is said to be one of four that stood at each corner of the Hieron built between 325 and 150 BC.

Another piece that caught my attention was this lovely frieze of dancing girls. It was found in an imposing building of 34x23 meters that is neither a temenos nor a propylon and thus has been labeled as the Hall of Choral Dancers after the frieze that was discovered inside. Dating from the middle of the 4^th century BC, this Hall is the first marble structure of the Sanctuary, maybe even the oldest and the largest one. The frieze we see here is only a small section of the continuous row of hundreds of dancing maidens running around the entire building. Besides the dancing figures, female musicians also accompanied the long procession. The wealth exposed in this monument leads experts to believe that it was commissioned by an influential donor and that the name of Philip II, Alexander’s father, has fallen since it was here that he met Queen Olympias.

Because of Philip’s and Olympia’s early presence and the splendid monumental dedications made during the later Hellenistic period, it is generally believed that Samothrace played a crucial role in Macedonia’s legacy. I would even add a pivotal role to Alexander’s legacy!

What if … Alexander had died a few months earlier, before Craterus left with his veterans for Macedonia?

Another interesting point of view for after Hephaistion died one year earlier, Craterus became Alexander’s second-in-command. Craterus was now the most powerful man after Alexander, at least in the east, for Antipater still ruled undisturbed over Macedonia and Greece.

Well, maybe Craterus could have kept his high position and could have shaped a new ruling system, although the empire still needed a king. Roxane’s pregnancy may not yet have been established, in which case the more or less obvious appointment of Arrhidaeus/PhilipIII would have materialized. But simple-minded as he was, he too would need a regent to rule in his place. Would the generals present at Babylon have accepted Craterus’ superiority? Maybe in the immediate future but for the next 18 years till Alexander IV was old enough to be king?

It does not sound very probable, for meanwhile, Arrhidaeus/Philip III would have picked up momentum together with his wife, the ambitious Adea/Eurydice. The ambition of the generals and their faithful troops is likely to have demanded their share pending the coming of age of Alexander IV. The main difference with what really happened is that Craterus would have been in Babylon with his 10,000 veterans to reinforce the local troops. He had a strong case against Antipater since he had the majority of the troops on his side. This situation could have made the situation more manageable and appeased possible opposition – at least for a while.

On the other hand, however, Craterus could have gained the support of Olympias, but whether that was enough to stop Cassander from working out his devilish plans after Antipater’s death in 319 BC depended entirely on the replacement Craterus had in mind. Polyperchon seems to be an excellent candidate since Alexander himself had sent him along with Craterus in the first place, should anything happen to him, Polyperchon, a highly skilled diplomat, was to take over. Craterus was obviously aware of these plans and could have acted accordingly.

We know that Polyperchon, in the end, played a foul game as he was responsible for the murder of  Heracles and his mother, Barsine. Polyperchon’s dream to rule over Greece had clashed with Cassander’s ambitions time and again, and in 310 BC, Cassander promised him peace and promotion as military governor of the Peloponnese. In exchange, the 75-year-old Polyperchon had to kill Heracles and Barsine. He accepted the deal.

What if … Alexander had died a few months later, after his son with Roxane was born and Craterus had replaced Antipater in Macedonia?

It is obvious that there would have been a successor and one recognized by Alexander himself, although it remains to be seen whether the boy would have lived long enough to succeed his father. It would have been logical and more practical to rule Alexander’s empire from Babylon, but I doubt any of his generals saw it that way. For them, Macedonia was still their homeland, with Pella as its heart.

With Craterus as Regent of Macedonia instead of Antipater, there were two centers of power: one in Pella, where the army of some 10,000 was reinforced by the 10,000 veterans Craterus had taken back home, and one in Babylon, where the bulk of Alexander’s army was waiting for new orders. Yet again, all generals were present in Babylon, except Craterus, who, as second-in-command to Alexander, could not be ignored. More than 2,000 km separated both camps, and Craterus could hardly leave Greece for Babylon, unless Polyperchon would or could replace him properly. It all would depend on how stable the situation in Greece was when the news of Alexander’s death reached the Palace of Pella. But could or would the other generals wait for Craterus’ arrival?

At least Arrhidaeus was redundant. But how safe would Roxane and her young son have been? She is accused of having murdered Alexander’s latest wives, the two daughters of King Darius, poisoned, apparently, with the help of Perdiccas. The next question is, would Perdiccas have dared to assist Roxane if Craterus had been controlling Macedonia? Would or could Roxane have murdered the two princesses on her own? Nothing is certain, of course.

Another important factor is that with Craterus firmly installed in Macedonia, Cassander had little or no chance to spread his wings. This means that the murders of Alexander IV, Roxane, Heracles, Barsine, and Olympias would not have taken place. Even Arrhidaeus may have come out alive of the Successors’ War, and there would have been no need for him to marry Adea/Eurydice either.

In the end, and to cut my speculations short, the Successors would have been fighting all the same, although the odds were slightly different since Cassander had not come to power and Alexander IV might have lived long enough to become the next Great King of Asia – who knows…

What if … Hephaistion had still been alive at the time of Alexander’s death in Babylon?

We can state beyond doubt that Hephaistion was Alexander’s closest friend; he was his confidant and probably his lover. He undoubtedly occupied an exceptional place in Alexander’s life. One example is when, after the Battle of Issus, King Darius’ family falls into Macedonian hands. Together with Hephaistion, Alexander visits Queen Sisygambis, the Queen Mother, and she did obeisance before Hephaistion since he was the tallest and most handsome of the two. Alexander comes to her rescue by saying, “he too is Alexander” – a statement he would not have made about anyone else. Another example can be found during the famous Susa wedding when Alexander gives princess Drypetis, the sister of his new bride Stateira, to Hephaistion since he wanted their mutual children to grow up as they had. A last example is that Alexander wanted his dead friend to be worshipped as a god so that they could meet again in heaven, for which he asked permission from the oracle of Siwah, who granted him the status of hero instead.

Hephaistion was one of Alexander’s Seven Bodyguards from the early days onward, with Aristonous, Leonnatus, Lysimachus, Peithon, Perdiccas, and Ptolemy, but appears as “Commander of the Bodyguards” at the actual Battle of Gaugamela. In light of his more intimate relationship with Alexander, he would protect Alexander more fiercely and convincingly than anyone else. This same attitude may percolate through the trial of Philotas, who was accused of conspiracy several years later, and where we see Hephaistion as a most determined defender of Alexander’s security and safety.

Besides his role as Bodyguard and commander of the troops entrusted to him, it is clear that Hephaistion had many other tasks and responsibilities that do not jump out immediately but transpire through the accounts of Arrian and Plutarch. The historian Hieronymos affirms that Alexander reinstated the Persian post of Chiliarch (Prime Minister) solely for Hephaistion. His unique position is further disclosed and discussed by Andrew Chugg in his book “Alexander’s Lovers.”

I think we should see Hephaistion as a great diplomat functioning as a buffer between all the personages whirling around the royal tent, from the simple pages to the highest general and Alexander himself. As early as Tyre, he was assigned to find a leader/king for the newly conquered city. Another crucial moment was the orchestration of the Proskynesis, a general practice at the Persian court that the Greeks and the Macedonians considered abhorrent, but where Hephaistion set the example. The attempt to put Persians and Greeks on the same line did not work out as Alexander wished because his vision was larger than his army's – yet he certainly had Hephaistion’s support.

There is a theory that Alexander has been poisoned or maybe unknowingly poisoned himself by taking too high a dose of the hellebore plant, a common remedy in antiquity for many ailments. I am convinced that Hephaistion would have looked closely after his dearest friend and could have avoided the poisoning orchestrated by an outsider, or could have talked sense into Alexander’s mind about a more prudent dosage of his remedy (provided Alexander died of poisoning, that is)

Had Hephaistion still been alive in Babylon in his function of Chiliarch, he probably would have had precedence over all the other commanders despite his earlier quarrel with Craterus. This happened when Alexander invaded India - a conflict in which the king settled true to Salomon by stating that Craterus loved the king (philobasileus) and Hephaistion loved Alexander (philalexandros). This is evidence that they both had a seniority position over the other commanders. We may safely assume they would respect their mutual position and unconditional devotion to Alexander.

Yet, in the current theory, Craterus was underway to bring the veterans back home and take over regency from Antipater (assuming, however, that he would agree to give up his important position even upon Alexander’s order, which he had ignored before when the king summoned him to Babylon), leaving Hephaistion in charge of the east. It is evident that Hephaistion would have spoken in Craterus’  name and acted with his approval.

It may have been possible for Hephaistion to “rule” over the other commanders pending the birth of Roxane’s child, who came into this world as Alexander IV. This child needed a regent pending his coming of age. I seriously doubt that the other generals would have tolerated Hephaistion’s leadership till that time (at least 18 years), but he may have avoided the kingship of Arrhideus/Philip III. 

Each of the commanders was a wealthy man by now, some keeping a court of their own, and they were powerful figures in the eyes of their troops, who only wanted more fights and more booty. Alexander’s empire had to be divided one way or another. Maybe most of the violence and continuous Wars of the Successors could have been avoided, but not all. As pointed out above, in 323 BC, we must reckon with twelve powerful men, i.e., the Bodyguards and Seleucos, Nearchus, and Eumenes – in the absence of Craterus and Antipater. In fact, they were simply too many to make a decent and peaceful split. Hephaistion probably would have had the time and the opportunity to organize and streamline the management of the many satrapies with some form of agreement with Craterus in Macedonia. The succession of Alexander would not have dragged on for forty years, when each general could have been assigned a part of the empire to rule pending the takeover by Alexander IV. In the end, the Romans may have had a more challenging time conquering Asia, and those eastern provinces would have been annexed only many centuries later than what happened now.

On the other hand, Hephaistion would undoubtedly have protected Roxane and young Alexander with his life, for in his eyes, they were part of Alexander in many ways. There would have been no case for Roxane to poison the Persian princesses were it only because Hephaistion would have watched over all of them as his family.

[Picture of Alexander and Hephaistion is from Oliver Stone's movie "Alexander"]