The tomb of Alexander the Great

The tales about the tomb of Alexander are countless, varying from pure myth and wishful thinking to serious studies and well-documented analysis. 

In August 2021, I posted a summary of what was known so far: Endless fuss over the tomb of Alexander the Great. Here, I included the name of Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi, who assumed that the king’s mummy was transferred to Siwah as Ptolemy fulfilled Alexander’s wish. In her theory, she ignored the recorded visits of the Roman emperors to Alexander's tomb in Alexandria. 

Liana Souvaltzi started excavating the Temple of Amon-Ra in Siwah in 1989, but in 1995, the Greek and Egyptian governments suddenly blocked her permit without explanation. 

[Reconstruction of what the monument in the Siwa Oasis would have once looked like. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

In my mind, her story was one of many, like the one I posted in October 2024:  Another pertinent theory about Alexander’s Tomb that was another dead-end road.

It now transpires that I missed Liana Souvaltzi's plea published in December 2014, also in Ancient Origins, upon their invitation. The full story can be read in this article. I'm quoting a few of the key arguments hereafter, in italics.

The archaeological site is 15 kilometers west of the Ammon Temple, which is in the town of Siwa. The area where the tomb is located is named El Maraki. The tomb complex covers an enormous area of 12,000 square meters, of which 5,000 square meters were excavated.

From the size of the tomb itself, which is 51m long and has an outer width of 10.25m, it is obvious that it could only have been destined for use as a burial monument for the worship of a very important person, such as a king. The tomb sits on a rock, underneath which lies an enormous gold mine, the first found in the western desert. It consists of an entrance, corridor, and three chambers.

It is a good argumentation and certainly raises questions about the presence of Greek architectural elements in Siwah and the size/purpose of the monument. A link with Alexander is not impossible. However, although the monument she defined as a tomb was colossal, it contained no actual tomb or sarcophagus to prove Alexander's presence. 

[Cleaning up the corridor leading to the tomb. Credit: Liana Souvaltzi]

There were, however, three inscriptions referring to Alexander:

Finally, we found three different honorary inscriptions written in Greek uppercase letters. The first inscription could be dated from its text to between 290 and 284 BC. The first line of the inscription bore the name ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ΑΜΜΩΝΟΣ ΡΑ (ALEXANDER AMMON RA).

The second inscription can be dated between 108 and 115 BC and is an honorary inscription and was placed by the Emperor Traianus in honour of Alexander, whom he admired and respected as a god.

The third inscription is a fragment which indicates the number of the inhabitants of the oasis and the army, which was a part of the military forces assigned to guard the royal tomb of Alexander the Great.

The discovery of these inscriptions and their meanings was announced in the course of the Italian – Egyptian Congress in Rome on 15 November 1995.

In line with the earlier and later theories that circulate on the tomb of Alexander and its whereabouts, there is the thorough destruction of this Siwah Tomb. The floors, walls, corridors, and decorative elements have been destroyed and turned into a flooded garbage dump. 

Whatever promising tracks scholars and archaeologists investigate to find the last resting place of this great conqueror, they are stopped in their efforts at one point or another. Poor Alexander! He deserves so much more attention, care, and respect.

Tombs in ancient Oxyrhynchus

The ancient site of Oxyrhynchus, south of modern Cairo, is best known for the papyrus remains that were discovered back in 1897 (see: City of the Sharp-Nosed Fish by Peter Parsons). It took many years to start deciphering the many bits and pieces, a process that is still ongoing, as detailed in my earlier post, Get involved with Oxyrhynchus.
 
This work is full of surprises. For instance, the 1922 reconstruction and translation of a poem by Sappho of Lesbos, who lived circa 630-570 BC. By 2005, the missing part of this poem had been found on a papyrus held at the University of Cologne. It is wonderful and unique to finally have a complete poem by one of the greatest lyric poetesses of antiquity.
 
By now, it transpires that 80 volumes of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri have been published, thanks to the relentless efforts of Professor Peter Parsons of the University of Oxford. The documents have largely contributed to a better understanding and knowledge of the history of Egypt and Rome.
 

More than a hundred years after the site was discovered, excavations are carried out by the Institute of Ancient Near East Studies of the University of Barcelona. It is hard to believe that Oxyrhynchus once was the third-largest city in Egypt, as it boomed under the Ptolemies, who ruled after the death of Alexander. It was Christianized with the rest of Egypt, as testified by the many churches and monasteries that were built. During Roman and Byzantine occupation, however, the city gradually declined. Life changed dramatically after the arrival of the Muslims in 641 AD, and Oxyrhynchus was eventually abandoned.

 
The discovery of the papyrus garbage dump slowly revived the general interest in this forgotten city. Since 2020, Spanish archaeologists have concentrated their efforts on the city’s necropolis. Each excavation season has its own harvest of tombs and grave goods. In 2023, for instance, six funerary complexes from Persian (Sassanid), Roman, and Coptic times and 16 individual tombs were discovered.
 

Last year, in 2024, a collection of 52 mummies from Ptolemaic times was exposed. Thirteen of the bodies had golden tongues in their mouth, a clear sign of preparation for the afterlife, and one had a gold plate on its fingernails. Precious gifts like scarabs, amulets of Egyptian gods, and a terracotta statuette of the god Harpocrates (the Greek and Roman version of the Egyptian child-god Horus) were also retrieved. Another tomb counted three burial chambers whose walls were covered with texts and colorful funerary scenes depicting several Egyptian gods. Also, four limestone sarcophagi have been found.

 
This all sounds very promising as the finds in Oxyrhynchus give new insights into life and death during Ptolemaic and Roman times.

[Pictures from the Universitat de Barcelona]

An alabaster bust of Alexander

Alexandria, founded by Alexander in 333 BC, remains largely hidden under the modern city. Occasional excavations occur, mostly in the Al-Shatby suburb, which was occupied from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD. This neighborhood is perhaps better known as the Shallalat Gardens, where parts of the ancient city walls and a statue of Alexander were recently discovered (see: Magnificent Alexander statue found in Alexandria). It is believed that the Royal Quarters were located underneath these Gardens.

The Al-Shatby neighborhood was an ancient residential and commercial zone, a trade center during Ptolemaic rule. It held a lively market selling amphorae, pottery, and plates produced locally. The workshops were specialized in creating statues, statuettes, and amulets for the warriors. 

[Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities]

The place made headlines recently when an alabaster bust of Alexander was unearthed. Alabaster was highly esteemed in ancient Egypt, where it was used for various sacred and sepulchral objects. The picture of the Alexander bust looks promising, but no information about its size or the context in which it was found. Since molds for statues in his effigy are mentioned in the same context in the article by Ancient Origins, we might assume archaeologists are pointing toward local workshops. 

Studies revealed a main road (perhaps the Canopic Road?) and adjacent streets connected to a sewage system. A sophisticated network of wells was discovered; also, water tanks were used to collect and store rain, floodwater, and groundwater to be used in case of droughts. 

So far, the main discovery is the necropolis complex holding tombs of people who migrated from Greece, Macedonia, Crete, and Asia Minor. A vast underground multi-chambered complex has been exposed with a large Hypogeum A, and two smaller Hypogeums. Hypogeum A yielded many sculptures, coins, glass artifacts, and plenty of pottery, especially a type of hydria (water jar with two opposite horizontal handles and one vertical one) typical for Alexandria. This is the city’s oldest archaeological site, dating back to the late 4^th-3^rd century BC. 

It remains extremely difficult to get a comprehensive overview of Alexandria as built by Ptolemy I Soter and his successors. The Great Library is best known from literary descriptions (see: Alexandria, the first Renaissance); the same applies to the famous Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (see: Not all Seven Wonders of the World are the same).

The surprise of Myndos

Nowadays, Myndos is probably best-known for its underwater causeway running from the city’s harbor to Rabbit Island, which is guarding the mainland. It is a favorite with the tourists who happily walk across the bay when the sea level is only reaching to their knees. Otherwise, the site has very little to offer with cut stones and column drums strewn around. 

These ruins make it very difficult to imagine that Myndos was once a large prosperous city. In 377 BC, King Mausolos of Halicarnassus established Caria’s independence from Persia. He rebuilt the cities of Myndos and Syangela, and moved all other Carians to Halicarnassus, which he proclaimed his new capital (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria). 

Myndos, modern Gümüșlük, had a well-sheltered harbor, well-protected against the prevailing wind. The city had a two-mile-long fortification wall and its most vulnerable southeastern section was strengthened with towers. The green granite used for its construction is the same as the one known from the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus. The quarry providing these stones has been located in Koyunbaba, some three kilometers to the north. 

Otherwise, hardly anything else remains from ancient Myndos. Some rock-cut stairs and foundations of houses are found on the hillside, but the ruins that were present in the early 19^th century have entirely disappeared. They are said to belong to a theater from the 4th century BC, a stadium with 7 columns, vaulted remains of a Bath, and a late Roman/early Byzantine basilica. 

Until the 1990s, there were more ancient stone blocks and bits of columns lying around in the village. Near a school, about 1.5 kilometers inland, some columns and Roman mosaics could be seen. Strangely, the nearby silver mines (hence the name Gümüșlük) are not mentioned in ancient sources. 

When Alexander besieged Halicarnassus in 334 BC, he speculated that Myndos would offer an easier approach. Some people in Myndos had actually suggested that they might open the city gates if he arrived under cover of darkness. Alexander took their word, but when he showed up at the gates there was no sign of surrender. Facing the betrayal, he ordered his Macedonians to attack without much result because he had not brought any rams, artillery or ladders. Myndos put up a vigorous resistance and soon was joined by Halicarnassus’ troops arriving by sea. Alexander was forced to withdraw and returned to besiege Halicarnassus. 

The capital of Caria was not taken so easily because the Persian commander Orontobates had the support of the Persian fleet. For the time being, Halicarnassus was no longer a real threat. Alexander moved on but left Ptolemy and Asander behind to finally take the city and to evict the remaining Persians. It was only a year later, in Soli, that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen!  At the same time, the town of Myndos came under Macedonian hands (see: A two-month-project to excavate the city of Soli). 

After the king’s death, Myndos was ruled by the Ptolemies from 308 until 275 BC. In 96 BC, it became independent and minted its own coins. Myndos was included in the Roman Province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. 

The harbor city was again in the news after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, after which Brutus and Cassius were expelled from Rome; they took their fleet to safety here at Myndos. By the end of 42 BC, the two murderers lost the battle against Marc Antony and Octavian in Philippi, and Myndos was given to Rhodes (see: Philippi, Macedonia’s gold and silver mines). Not for long though as the Rhodians treated Myndos harshly and unfairly and became independent again. However, it gradually lost its prosperity, although it may have survived till the 7th century AD. 

Myndos is often referred to as a Lelegian town, dating back to the Bronze Age. Except for its name, it has no connection with the classical city discussed in this article and both have a different history. The Lelegian site is nowadays called Old Myndos and lies a good three kilometers southeast of Gümüșlük.

“To the strongest”

“To the strongest” are the last words Alexander pronounced on his deathbed in Babylon when pressed to name his successor. 

His Companions and generals were obviously panicking at the thought of being left behind so many miles away from Macedonia without their king to guide them. They desperately needed him. 

Ever since he became king in 336 BC Alexander had shown his commanders the way and led his men by example. He certainly did not expect to die at the age of 33 and not in his bed. How could he have foreseen to be incapacitated and unable to be his own self? 

The only person who had always been at his side and enjoyed his full confidence had died the previous year. Hephaistion had been officially appointed as his Chiliarch, his second in command. The sudden death of his dearest friend left him in total disarray and maddened by grief. He was truly alone at a time when he had to make the hardest decision of his life and elect a successor. “Who, Alexander? Tell us who!” are the words Oliver Stone put in the mouth of Ptolemy. How appropriate! 

“To the strongest” has often been understood as a weak and evasive statement, although, in reality, Alexander’s last words are one final proof of his genius! Had he not been so much afflicted by his illness and impaired by the high fever, he would have found the strength to elaborate a solution to the Succession with his close Companions. He would likely have appointed Perdiccas. Even so, Alexander’s decision may have lost its power two years onward, and the commanders would have taken the matter into their own hands anyway.

Of course, everyone around the king’s deathbed still hoped to be appointed and hear his name called out. However, matters were not as straightforward as one might think. On the one hand, he had to name an heir since, as King, he needed a successor, and on the other hand, as commander in chief of his army, he had to appoint a capable military leader. 

At this point, his most experienced generals were Craterus and Perdiccas. Yet, Craterus was in Cilicia taking 10,000 veterans back to Macedonia with Alexander’s instructions to replace Antipater as Regent in Pella. Perdiccas was in Babylon and took the king’s succession into his hands. 

Roxane was pregnant, but the child had not been born yet, and there was no guarantee it would be a boy. Alexander had never recognized Heracles, his son by Barsine. In any case, Roxane’s son and Heracles were too young to rule, and the generals would have to choose a Regent pending their coming of age. The next best option was to push Arrhideus forward. He was Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother and not capable of becoming the de facto ruler. As a result, Perdiccas was elected Regent at the Partition of Babylon. 

This implied, however, that he would rule over Alexander’s Companions and generals. Perdiccas’ success was short-lived, though, and in 321 BC he was sidelined at Triparadeisus as the commanders decided to divide the kingdom among themselves. When Perdiccas escorted Alexander’s remains to be buried in Macedonia, Ptolemy hijacked the mummified body and took it to Egypt. In a desperate attempt to recover his king’s remains, Perdiccas failed totally to march his men across the Nile. His losses were so excessive that his soldiers revolted and killed him. 

These were uncertain times for all the parties involved in the Succession Wars. They all had the ambition to rule over Alexander’s Empire and felt equally qualified to do so, but none shared Alexander’s vision. Ultimately, they eliminated each other until the empire was divided between Ptolemy, Seleucos, Antigonus, and Cassander (see: Dividing the Spoils. The War for Alexander’s Empire by Robin Waterfield).

None of the great men who fought alongside Alexander for almost twelve years emerged as the strongest. They all had learned a lot, but none could come close to Alexander’s charisma and exceptional genius.

Inventions by Hero of Alexandria

The best-known works by Hero of Alexandria are his Pneumatica and Mechanica in which he described how “Automata” actually works. “Automata” is a Greek word meaning as much as “self-moving”, “self-acting” or “self-willed” which is familiar in our modern world. It may be debated whether the inventions were truly his or if he collected them from other sources available at the Library of Alexandria.  

[Reconstruction inside of Alexandria's Library]

Hero lived in the 1^st century BC, and his Pneumatica was widely read far into the Middle Ages. More than 100 manuscripts have survived, illustrating how ancient texts can live a long life. The earliest surviving copy is kept in the Bibliotheca Marciana in Venice, Italy, and dates from the 13^th century, i.e., 1400 years after it was initially written! 

The inventor’s Mechanica has survived thanks to one single Arabic translation made between 862 and 866 AD, preserved at the Library of Leiden University, the Netherlands. 

His most striking invention, in my eyes, is his steam engine, which I already developed in a separate post, A steam engine in antiquity. 

Another of his inventions is a coin-operated dispenser for Holy Water in Egyptian temples. Worshippers who visited the temple needed this water for their ritual washing. Dropping a coin into the slot of the dispenser would set a chain reaction into motion. The weight of the coin would tilt a metal lever which would open a valve through which the water flowed into the cup held by the worshiper. As the coin slipped off the lever, the valve was closed. This invention eventually led to the modern vending machine. 

Hero took his ingenuity one step further when he conceived a series of mechanisms for the Greek theater. He orchestrated a mechanical puppet show using a system of ropes, knots, and simple machines operated by a rotating cylindrical cogwheel. To add the sound of thunder, he used metal balls released at timed intervals onto a hidden drum. 

Another marvel Hero described in detail is the automatic temple door opener (see: Automatic doors, a 2,000-year-old invention), another way for the priests to collect money. 

He also invented the first wind-powered organ using a small wind wheel, probably not unlike the windmills used by the early modern colonists in Australia and the American Far West. The wind wheel powered a piston and forced air through the organ pipes creating sounds resembling a flute.

This mechanism includes the ‘hydraulis,’ which first appeared in Alexandria also, said to have been built by Ctesibius. It was operated by compressed air channeled through a container of water to equalize the pressure. A row of pipes of different lengths produced the sound. More control was acquired with the keyboard-wind instrument as replicated at the Museum of Dion, Greece (see: Close encounter with an ancient Water-Organ). 

I’d like to pick out one more of Hero's inventions from a list that may have counted up to 80, the syringe. The device is much larger than the one we know today since its purpose was entirely different. It was used to control the delivery of air or fluid with precision. Yet the principle of the antique version is the same: the plunger forced the liquid or air out in a controllable quantity. Something to remember next time we get an injection!

We will never know if the concept of creating a center of knowledge in Alexandria was Alexander’s idea or a later addition by Ptolemy. In my opinion, the concept was too vast for Ptolemy while it would perfectly fit Alexander’s thrive to melt East and West together as initiated at the Susa Wedding. 

We cannot imagine the impact of the Museum of Alexandria and its Library on the world’s history. Philosophers, mathematicians, botanists, writers, poets, historians, physicists, anatomists, astrologists, investors, and engineers from all over the then-known world would mingle and exchange their scholarship and wisdom. No other city in the world has ever reunited so many bright minds, not even in the Renaissance. Today’s digital world is the first to come close to attaining this level of universality.

Not all Seven Wonders of the World are the same

We like to believe that the list of the Seven Wonders of the World in antiquity was well-established, but that is not entirely correct. 

In the 1^st century BC, Diodorus mentions them by name: the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus in Olympia, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. This is the list we follow nowadays, but the importance of each monument has been subject to personal taste and appreciation of its time. 

Well before Diodorus, many writers had their opinions on the matter. The oldest known is, for instance, Herodotus who, in the 5^th century BC does not mention the Hanging Gardens of Babylon but provides a very detailed description of the Walls of Babylon built with baked bricks cemented together with bitumen. The ramparts were 72 kilometers long, 10 meters thick, and 22 meters high! A striking feature is that the top of the wall was wide enough for two four-horse chariots to pass each other. The intermittent towers were 27 meters high. 

Callimachus of Cyrene, who lived in the 3^rd century BC, chose to include the Ishtar Gate of Babylon – a marvel that has been reconstructed inside the Pergamon Museum in Berlin (see: A mental reconstruction of Alexander’s triumphal march into Babylon). 

Philo of Byzantium in 225 BC lists the Walls of Babylon, but not the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which had not been built yet. He said he had actually seen the Hanging Gardens but omitted to situate them in Babylon. Their existence remains questionable, and there still is an unconfirmed theory that these gardens were in Nineveh. They were described as vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped pillars. These were hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces were constructed of baked brick and bitumen. The Gardens were initiated by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 575 BC. Philo tells of the Statue of Zeus by Phidias in Olympia, the bronze Colossus of Rhodes featuring Helios (the Sun), and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos. He further includes the Tomb of King Mausolos in Halicarnassus, and the Pyramids of the Giza plateau, not singling out the Great Pyramid. 

Antipater of Sidon, who lived in the 2^nd/1^st century BC writes that he laid eyes on the ‘walls of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots’, and the Hanging Gardens; the statue of Zeus in Olympia, the Colossus of the Sun in Rhodes, the huge achievement of the high pyramids in Giza, the vast tomb of Mausolos at Halicarnassus; and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos saying ‘that [as] it mounted to the clouds those other marvels lost their brilliancy’. 

Strabo, in the 1st century BC, gives by far the most detailed description of the Seven Wonders. 

The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, the oldest and only wonder that still exists, was erected around 2560 BC. It is the largest of the three Pyramids at Giza, which are all equally important, as stated by Philo of Byzantium. The proportions of the Great Pyramid are colossal. The original height from the base to the peak was about 147 meters. The length of each side at the base averaged around 230 meters. The theories about its construction and function are widespread and are by no means conclusive. 

The statue of Zeus in Olympia stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The large sitting Zeus was made of ivory and gold by Phidias in 436 BC. Although he was seated, Zeus stood 12.4 meters high, meaning that his head nearly touched the ceiling. Nothing much of the temple remains, but its impressive East and West pediments are exhibited in full glory at the local museum (see: Olympia, in the footsteps of Pausanias). 

The first Temple of Artemis in Ephesus goes back to the 7^th century BC. After its destruction, it was completely rebuilt to an unheard scale of 115 x 55 meters, i.e., larger than the Parthenon in Athens. The Artemis venerated in this temple is represented with many breasts, and is clearly not of Greek origin but imported from the East (see: Alexander’s presence in Ephesus). Nothing remains today to prove its grandeur and glory.

The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria) from about 350 BC was a rectangular monument measuring 40 x 30 meters, and about 45 meters high. It was decorated with scenes from Greek mythology, such as the battle of the Centaurs with the Lapiths and fighting Amazons, although scholars disagree on their precise position. It is certain, however, that the statues of King Mausolos and his wife/sister Artemesia riding in a four-horse chariot, now at the British Museum, stood at the very top of the Mausoleum. The tomb survived in pretty good condition for many years despite recurrent earthquakes, but the final blow happened in 1494 when the Knights of St John of Rhodes invaded the area and reused the stones of the Mausoleum to build their castle. Remnants are still visible to modern visitors on the walls of Bodrum Castle. 

The Colossus of Helios in Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindos, was completed in 282 BC. It stood near the entrance of the harbor, although the exact location is unknown. The Colossus wore a crown of sun rays – hence its name, Colossus of Helios - and held up a torch. It was made of bronze and rested on a marble pedestal. With a height of 33 meters, it is considered the tallest bronze from antiquity. It was the shortest-lived ancient wonder that disappeared 60 years after its construction due to a severe earthquake. Its legend lives on, though. 

The Lighthouse or Pharos of Alexandria was the last wonder added to the list of seven, replacing the Walls of Babylon. It was conceived in three stages: a square stone base, an octagonal middle section, and a cylindrical shape at the top. Inside, a fire would guide the seafarers into the harbor of Alexandria. By day, they were led by the smoke, and at night by its bright light (see: Alexandria’s past futures). The Lighthouse stood over 100 meters tall, and its light could be seen 50-60 kilometers out at sea. Its construction was completed between 300 and 280 BC during the reigns of Ptolemy I Soter and his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.  

The ancient historians of Alexander the Great have spent very little ink on these Seven Wonders – or the texts simply have not reached us. The Temple of Ephesos, which was burnt down the night Alexander was born, was still under construction at the time of his visit. But the king must have witnessed the grand Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and the main features of Babylon, such as its Walls, the Ishtar Gate (which he used to enter the city), and the Gardens if they were indeed part of the Royal Palace. Strangely enough, Giza and its Pyramids are absent from all documents, as if they never existed!

The roaring times of the Antigonid dynasty

The Wars of the Diadochi broke out after Alexander’s death in 323 BC and his huge Empire went to “the strongest” as he may have intended to say on his deathbed in Babylon. However, it did not go to one single ruler as none of his generals had his vision or charisma. 

After endless battles, intermarriages, and lots of intrigues, Alexander’s generals eliminated each other and, in the end, started four distinct dynasties. Ptolemy initiated the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, and Seleucos the Seleucid dynasty in Asia. Cassander, the son of Antipater, founded the Antipatrid dynasty (the ancient Kingdom of Macedonia). In 306 BC, Antigonus Monophthalmus (the One-Eyed) declared himself and his son Demetrios kings. By doing so, the Antigonid dynasty replaced the Antipatrid dynasty. 

Antigonus may well have served under Philip II and lost an eye during the Siege of Perinthus in 340 BC. He later joined Alexander on his Persian campaign and was promoted to satrap of Phrygia in 334 BC. His main duty was to maintain Alexander’s line of communication and supply. As a result of the Partition of Babylon following Alexander’s death, he also received Pamphylia and Lycia. 

During the Wars of the Diadochi, Antigonus picked up momentum and managed to rule over all of Asia Minor, Greece, Syria, Phoenicia, and northern Mesopotamia. Fearing his increasing power, Seleucos, Ptolemy, Lysimachos, and Cassander joined forces against him. Antigonus was defeated and killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC after which his realm was split between Lysimachos and Seleucos. 

However, Antigonus’ son Demetrios Poliorcetes, by now having earned his stripes as Besieger survived said battle and took control of Macedonia in 294 BC. Cassander died in 297 BC without a successor as his sons had eliminated each other, paving the way for Demetrios to become King of Macedonia. Not for long because in 288 BC he was driven out by Pyrrhus and Lysimachos, and died as a prisoner of Seleucos. 

It was not until 277 BC that Demetrios’ son, Antigonus II Gonatas, regained the title of King of Macedonia. He ruled till about 239 BC, to be succeeded by Demetrios II Aetolicus, followed by Antigonus III Doson ten years later. 

Meanwhile, Rome became the rising power in the eastern Mediterranean, and soon the first conflicts with Antigonid Macedonia led by King Philip V (221-179 BC) erupted. His successor, Perseus, put up a fierce resistance against the expanding Roman Empire that coveted Macedonia’s wealth. The Romans conquered Antigonid Macedonia in 168 BC at the Battle of Pydna, turning Alexander’s homeland into a mere Roman Province. 

Although very eventful, the Antigonid dynasty was short-lived and lasted less than 150 years. 

Macedonia’s grand palaces of Aegae, Pella, Bylazora, and Dimitrias were thoroughly looted, and the houses of the wealthy Macedonians were plundered. Statues, paintings, jewelry, and other wonderful, precious artifacts from Greece and Asia were up for grabs. Roman generals and common soldiers alike took as much as they could carry. Only the gods know what happened to the collection of Macedonia’s precious libraries.

Macedonian swords set against history

As mentioned in an earlier post (see: Alexander’s battle outfit), the Macedonians basically used two types of swords. The straight sword with a double-edged blade, which was most popular, was about 60-70 cm long. The blade was exceptionally efficient because of the swelling toward the sword’s tip. It added weight and momentum to each blow. It was used by cavalry and infantry alike, as it functioned for hacking and stabbing. 

The kopis, or saber-shaped sword with the crooked hilt, was less common. The blade was 40-60 cm long, and only the curved side had a cutting edge. The kopis was more effective for fights on horseback since the rider could deliver a heavy blow from above. 

Sources tell us that the Cyprian King of Citium (ancient Larnaca) gave Alexander a masterly executed sword, which was exceptionally light and well-tempered (see: The role of Cyprus in Alexander’s campaign). 

Quality swords were widespread among Alexander’s commanders and even common troops. Several memorable encounters have been reported by our historians. The most striking one was when Cleitus, with a single blow, severed the arm and shoulder of a Persian attacking Alexander at the Granicus. The Paeonian cavalry leader Ariston used his sword to behead the Persian leader Satropates during a skirmish near the Tigris River. 

The kopis were handled by the Macedonians at the Hydaspes to slash at the elephants’ trunks. Ptolemy drove his sword through the thigh of a local chief during the Indian expedition, and Alexander cut off the hand of his Arab assassin with one stroke of his sword during the siege of Gaza. The Macedonian tradition of handling weapons with high cutting capacity is still alive in 276 BC when King Pyrrhus inflicted such a blow to his adversary that he cleaved his opponent in two parts, falling to either side! 

Now we may wonder where and how all these swords were made. Cyprus was known for its quality weaponry, but did the artisans accompany the Macedonians into Asia, or did they train a selected number of people in this specific craftsmanship? Either theory is plausible. 

There is, however, the case of Porus’ gift. After the Battle of the Hydaspes, King Porus gave Alexander a precious sword. This story leads us to another source, Wootz Steel (the name is a corruption of ‘ukku’), a well-kept secret amongst the metallurgists in India. The name first appeared when Alexander received a gift of over 2500 kg of ‘white iron’, a kind of steel that originated in India millennia before reaching Europe. 

Wootz steel is a type of crucible steel made using a clay crucible. The vessel was closed and heated for several days to a temperature of 1300-1400 degrees Celsius. In the process, the quality of the product acquired high ductility, high impact strength, and reduced brittleness. After a slow cooling, the Wootz ingots were ready. Archaeologists discovered an industrial steel center from around the 3^rd century BC in the southern state of Tamil Nadu. 

How was this new technology received in the Macedonian camp? It is hard to imagine that Alexander did not explore or use the possibilities of this Wootz steel. He always was a ringleader when confronted with new inventions and improvements in warfare. The next time we hear about this revolutionary steel is that Indians had a monopoly over the production and export of Wootz steel from the 3^rd to the 17^th century, reaching from the Roman Empire in the West to China in the East. 

In the Middle Ages, Damascus became the main supplier of the famous Damascene swords, which is only another name for weaponry made using Wootz steel. 

By the 8^th century, manufacturing in India had spread throughout Central Asia, where the Vikings had established trade posts to exchange their furs and slaves over Eurasia. Hoards of Arab dirhams have been found in Scandinavia, documenting these trades. As a result, by the 9^th century, the Vikings produced high-quality Ulfberht swords, made of crucible steel known as Wootz steel. 

[Picture from Ulfbeht sword - Credits: Secrets of the Viking sword]

The blades of Viking swords were generally 70 to 90 centimeters long and 5-6 centimeters wide. The so-called Ulfberht swords carried the inscription +VLFBERH+T, which may be linked to some religious invocation rather than the maker’s signature. The earliest known specimen was created in the 9^th century and was one of the heaviest (1.9 kg) and longest (102 cm) Viking swords. It is exhibited at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo. Another surviving example is the sword of Saint Stephen from the 10^th century, which was the coronation sword of the Hungarian King Stephen. It still has its walrus-tooth hilt. 

The so-called Lincoln sword from the same era is one of only two known swords bearing the inscription +LEUFRIT, also made of crucible (most probably Wootz) steel. It was found near Monks Abbey in Lincolnshire, UK, in 1848. 

It is noteworthy that the science behind the production of Wootz steel was only understood in the 20^th century! From a technological point of view, this means that the metallurgists of ancient India were far, really far ahead of their time! 

Unfortunately, history has, to my knowledge, not linked the weaponry from Cyprus to the Wootz steel swords made in India. Consequently, we still don’t know how Alexander acted and reacted to Porus’ highly prized gift. I can’t imagine that Alexander did nothing to explore this newly acquired knowledge.