The multiculturalism of Alexandria

Earlier this month, Academia.edu shared an article by Rogério Sousa, Alexandrea ad Aegyptum: The legacy of Multiculturalism in Antiquity, together with a team of specialists in Art History, Archaeology, Literature, Mathematics, Egyptology, and Classical Studies. 

It is a nice complement to my blog Alexandria, first Renaissance, which I published just recently.

At the beginning of said book from 2012, a Chapter called FORWARD, deserves our dearest attention. It is written by Ismael Serageldin, Librarian of Alexandria. Who is better placed to describe Alexander’s role in creating a multicultural city that led “to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined.” I’m quoting this Chapter hereafter for everyone to enjoy: 

"The founding of Alexandria in 331 B.C.E. was a momentous event in the history of mankind. Alexander's dream was to create an international city, a space where people from all over the known world would live and work together for the development of the human mind. Alexandria therefore endures in our imagination as the first model of cultural interaction – of cosmopolitanism, to use both classical and contemporary terminology – and as the cultural and intellectual capital of the Ancient World. 

The intermingling of races and beliefs, and the exchange of ideas, undoubtedly produced the knowledge that modern scholarship still celebrates. For centuries Alexandria ruled the Mediterranean not just through its wealth and military power, but also with its intellectual achievements which came to fruition at the ancient Library of Alexandria. It was there that scholars gathered from the four corners of the world to push the boundaries of human knowledge and unleash the human mind on myriad quests. To this day it symbolizes the noblest aspirations of the human mind, global ecumenism, and the greatest achievements of the intellect. In Science, Mathematics, Astronomy and the humanities, the mark of Alexandrian scholarship and discoveries is to be found everywhere. 

The ancient Library of Alexandria was not just a repository of scrolls, valuable though those might have been. It was a centre of learning and of excellence, as we would today call it. It did not survive the turmoil of conflict and bigotry, or even the scars of time and natural disasters (for no physical remains exist), but its legacy lived on. Sixteen hundred years after its final collapse, the dream of its revival became a reality and it was resurrected, through international efforts, on the shores of the Mediterranean, just a stone's throw away from where its famed predecessor had stood. The new Library of Alexandria is a bold evocative building, but like its namesake, it is much more than a building and is not just a library. Born digital, it has risen to the challenges of the modern times and aspires to be a library for the new digital age. It is also, like the ancient Library, a centre of learning and dialogue, a space for intellectual debates (encouraging especially the youth), scholarship, and the arts, as well as a meeting place for North and South, East and West. Equipped with state-of-the-art technology and conference halls, it is a vast cultural complex with its own orchestra, museums, permanent as well as temporary exhibitions, research centres and publications. As it celebrates its tenth anniversary this October, the new Library of Alexandria can look back with pride upon the large strides it has taken towards promoting culture, dialogue and scholarship, reassuring its ancestor that ideas never die, and that though men may expire and buildings may perish, great minds are immortal. 

This conference, and its proceedings, are a testimony that the values embodied by Alexandria and its Library continue to inspire noble minded scholars whose pursuit for knowledge transcends boundaries and time. The breadth and scope of the papers presented do credit to the spirit of Alexandria – its multiculturalism, and its passion for science and scholarship. All this would not have been possible without the enlightened leadership of the first Ptolemies, who translated Alexander's dream in ways that may have exceeded his 10 alexandrea ad aegyptvm: the legacy of multiculturalism in antiquity expectations. The genius of the site, Alexander's choice, allowed the city to accumulate immense wealth through maritime trade, and this in turn allowed the Ptolemies to channel funds towards culture. It was they who laid the foundations of enlightenment, symbolized by the Pharos, the Museion and the Library. Under their aegis, scholarship and science – the product of foreign and local minds working together – made immense leaps in all areas. Callimachus, especially revered in the new Library of Alexandria, not only revolutionized poetry but also classified books according to author, title and subject, thereby establishing library science. Euclid's book continues to be taught to this day, a record that has yet to be broken! And Philo's early attempt at reconciling philosophy with religion set a tradition that also continues to engage philosophers and theologians. Indeed, Alexandria's importance in philosophy, Judaism and Christianity is a matter for deep scholarship, but this conference pays attention to the especial role Alexandria played in spreading the cult of Isis throughout the world, making her the most popular deity of ancient times. Cleopatra herself often assumed the role of Isis (thus providing a marvelous example of cultural interaction) during festivals and religious ceremonies. She was the last of the Ptolemies and the Hellenistic age came to an end with the asp bite that ended her life. Yet her magic, like that of the city which she ruled, lives on. The Hellenistic age may have officially ended with Octavian's victory, but it never died. 

The proceedings in our hands confirm that the multiculturalism of the Ancient World, rippling out from Alexandria to extend throughout the Hellenistic period and beyond, is as valid now as it was then – perhaps more so today, when globalization has given a new meaning to the internationalism envisioned by Alexander the Great centuries ago. Now, with the «clash of civilizations» dominating our discourse, it is pertinent to remember the lesson Alexandrea ad Aegyptum taught us: that the interaction between cultures can only lead to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined".

Wreaths and crowns of leaves or gold

Exploring the rooms of an archaeological museum, one inevitably comes across a concentration of gold and silver jewelry. Among them, the gold crowns with their quivering leaves call for our attention. 

The gold wreaths and crowns originated in ancient times when leaves and flowers were commonly used to mark festive occasions like processions or special dinners. Golden crowns were the privilege reserved for honors on behalf of the community or as funerary reverence. 

Wreaths of leaves were recognized as prizes for those victorious at competition games, marking a moment of triumph for the athlete. The most famous event was the Olympic Games, where the winner received a crown of olive leaves. Variants are laurel, Apollo’s sacred tree, at Delphi, dried celery at the Isthmian games, and green celery at the Nemean games. 

However, they were also appropriate on many other occasions. Those attending a Symposium would wear wreaths made of roses, violets, or myrtle leaves. Such wreaths appear clearly in Oliver Stone's movie Alexander in the wedding scene of King Philip.

They were also a sign of exceptional merit and military conduct and were worn by orators and priests as they performed their sacrifices. The Maenads and other followers of Dionysus wore wreaths of ivy or vine leaves, and so did the Chorus in ancient Greek theater. 

The ritual of crowning even extended to altars, statues, and temples. Wreaths were also part of funerary practices as the deceased would be crowned; the urns containing their ashes had a wreath, or the wreath was placed inside the tomb. 

Many such examples made in gold have reached us and found their way to the museums. For instance, the crown of oak leaves and acorns discovered in the tomb of King Philip in Aegae and the silver funerary urn from an unspecified Macedonian tomb are at the Museum of Vergina. 

However, most of the finds are on display at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki (see: Exploring the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki). The wreaths come, for instance, from Cassandreia, Apollonia, Sedes, Aenea, and the greater area around Thessaloniki and ancient Aegae. These precious grave goods may be the legacy of Alexander’s conquests and the wealth Macedonia amassed in his wake. 

It is a pure pleasure to wander through the museum’s rich collections to find, for instance, two myrtle wreaths, one splendidly executed with colored flowers, and another funerary one with bronze gilt leaves and clay gilt fruit (Aenea) from 350-325 BC. Two olive crowns, one from Tomb A and another very elaborated one with the knot of Heracles from Cassandreia (3rd century BC). The gold ivy wreath was found in Apollonia and dated 350-325 BC. The gold oak crown, very typical for the Macedonian court, was also unearthed in Cassandreia and carried the fascinating knot of Heracles as well. 

Although Athens holds far fewer examples, they may be kept in their reserves. The National Archaeological Museum exhibits a myrtle wreath with berries from the 4th century BC. The lesser-known Benaki Museum displays an oak leaves crown from the late 2nd/early 1st century BC found in Alexandria and another crown with gold ivy and flowers from Macedonia, 1st century BC. 

Eventually, wreaths appeared on funerary monuments or were painted on their walls. In time, a wreath might be carved on the tomb to mark the site. 

It is noteworthy that wreaths were sacred objects. It was a sacrilege to wear somebody else’s crown without authorization. It was also forbidden to remove a wreath or dispose of it if you were not supposed to touch it. 

Crowns were not a privilege of Greece. Earlier Thracian gold wreaths were found in Bulgaria and are now at the Museum of Sofia. 

A most striking and uncommon crown surfaced at Tillya-Tepe in northern Afghanistan (see: Bactrian Gold, the Hidden Treasures from the Museum of Kabul). The burial site belongs to some steppe people. It has been dated to the first century AD revealing a true mixture of art from the steppes (possibly Scythian art), Greek, Indian and Chinese art. The princess’ crown is a travel crown with gold spangles and flowers. It can be taken apart as it consists of five separate pieces mounted around a tiny stem holding flattened branches that fit into the band of the crown itself. The spangles are gently shaking as people walk by, so imagine this crown out in the open steppe where the wind can play freely with every tiny detail! A true gem! 

How many more such treasures remain hidden, waiting for us to discover them?

[Picture from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander.The crown from Tillya Tepe is from the Australian]

Thracian treasures on Alexander’s northern border

Thracians remain a relatively obscure people somewhere north of ancient Macedonia. It was long thought that they had no writing, but rare examples of inscriptions have been discovered using Greek letters that did not make sense. As a result, the history of the Thracians is only known through what other ancient authors tell us. 

Thracia is generally associated with Bulgaria. In antiquity, its borders extended from the Danube River, the Hellespont, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea in the east to Macedonia in the west. Today, the Greek province of Thracia still stretches from the Rhodope Mountains on its northern border with Bulgaria to the Aegean. It is squeezed between the Nestos River in the west and the Hebros in the east, forming the modern border with Turkey. 

[Photo: Todor Dimitrov/Courtesy of the Regional Historical Museum, Ruse, Bulgaria]

One of the most characteristic heritages of Thracian civilization is their profusion of burial mounds – a tradition that goes back to the Bronze Age, the middle of the 4th-2nd millennium BC. In central Bulgaria alone, over 1,500 such tumuli exist. 

The treasures of these tumuli in Bulgaria, went to the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia, otherwise to other European museums. More typical Thracian tumuli exist in Greece's Province of Thracia (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece). 

The great merit of the Thracians is their exceptional craftsmanship, especially in creating gold and silver objects. Most such testimonies come from grave mounds, which yielded a great variety of treasures, including the best-known Tomb of Kazanlak (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings). 

These precious legacies are occasionally brought together for special exhibitions. In 2015, the Louvre organized The Saga of the Thracian Kings. In 2002, an imposing number of objects were displayed at Bozar in Brussels in the frame of Europalia. 

I have not visited the Paris exhibition but have vivid memories of the one in Brussels. I marveled, for instance, at the gold jewelry from the Chalcolithic era (5-4,000 BC). Since the treasures from that era look very similar to those created in the 5-400 BC, I got my mental references mixed up. Other objects, however, looked like the forerunners of Cycladic Art. 

The collections presented in Paris in 2015 come from the Chernozem-Kaloyanovo and Mushovitsa tombs and the Kosmatka Tumulus of Seuthes III, King of Thracia, who died in 300 BC (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings). For the first time, some of the exhibited artifacts were brought together. 

The link to Architectural Digest displays an inspirational number of objects worth to be relished one by one.

Ancient harbor city discovered near Dikili, Turkey

Some excavations are carried out on sites known from antiquity, other digs get started after an accidental discovery. This is the case for the city of Atarneus situated on Turkey’s west coast. A 39-year-old diver noticed columns and column drums as he was diving off the coast of Dikili, some 120 km north of Izmir. 

[Picture from The Hurriyet Daily News]

Archaeologists examining the site concluded that said columns belonged to the ancient city of Atarneus founded by the Akalis, of whom close to nothing is known. 

Atarneus is, however, linked to Aristotle as Proxenus of Atarneus cared for the young Aristotle after his father died. While working at the Academy of Athens, Aristotle befriended a certain Hermias, who became the king of Atarneus. When the philosopher left Athens at the death of Plato, he stayed with Hermias and eventually married his daughter or niece, Pythia. 

The city reached its peak in the 4^th century BC under Hermias ruling over the area spreading from Atarneus to Assos further north. It ceased to exist in the 1^st century BC, apparently following the outbreak of some unspecified epidemic although tectonic movements cannot be excluded. 

Hopefully further excavations will be started to learn more about the city’s existence and destruction. After all, it blossomed in the days of Alexander the Great meaning that he must have known the existence of this city!

Greek presence in Croatia

Although the Greek colonies from the 8th century BC onward had widely settled in what is now Croatia, very few testimonies have been uncovered until now. 

Rare excavations by the Croatian archaeologists were carried out at Pharos, on the island of Hvar, where the Greek settlers arrived in 384 BC. The town made headlines a couple of years ago because of the peculiar shape in the plains around modern Stari Grad (see: Peculiar history of Pharos (modern Hvar). The fields are all drawn in a correct grit pattern that seems inspired by the Hippodamian plan of ancient cities. Every single plot measured a constant 181m x 905m; each such unit was in turn subdivided into five square parcels of 181m x 181m, corresponding to a realistic plot that could be tended by a single-family. 

The first-ever discovered and researched tomb of ancient Pharos has yielded cremated remains, together with weapons such as an iron sword and spear, and several coins, fragments of ceramics, bits of clothing, and glass beads and buttons. The tomb is expected to be part of a necropolis, which may appear after further excavations. 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

After a first assessment, scholars remarked that the cremation procedure was highly uncommon in those days. The remains found in other Greek necropolises in Dalmatia show that the deceased were entered with the rituals of their ancestors on the island of Paros. One such example has been found at Ise on the island of Vis. 

This particular grave at Pharos is believed to hold the remains of at least six people, although so far, archaeologists could only confirm those of a man, a woman, and a child. Other C14 dating and DNA analyses should shed more light on who was in this tomb and how they were possibly related. 

Also, the sword and the spear have survived in excellent condition and are the only weapons unearthed to this day in Croatia. The sword is of the kopis type, commonly known in Macedonia. Discovering a sword in a tomb suggests that at least one occupant was a warrior. 

Although Pharos is one of the oldest settlements in Croatia, we know very little about its layout and its occupation by the Greek colonists. Situated at the heart of the Adriatic, it would be fascinating to understand how the local population mingled with foreign communities such as the Greeks of Syracuse, the Celts, and finally, the Romans. Besides, it entirely coincides with the expansion of Macedonia initiated by King Philip and widely followed by his son, Alexander! 

Funeral rites of ancient Pharos remain obscure since many tombs were destroyed in the 19th century during construction works and land cultivation projects. 

Alexandria, the first Renaissance

The term Hellenism is often interchanged with Greek, especially in art. Classical Greek art almost unnoticeably merged with Hellenistic art, and we owe it all to Alexander. In the wake of his conquests, Greek culture and language spread all over the ancient world, from Greece to India. Thanks to the common use of the Greek language, trade developed as merchants were always looking for business opportunities. Talking to buyers and sellers in the same language was a considerable asset. 

After the wars among Alexander’s successors were settled, peace returned in one form or another. Traffic and exchanges between East and West soon blossomed to reach a level never achieved before. 

Greek knowledge and culture mixed and blended with the learning of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and India. In this context, Alexandria became the new center of the ancient world. 

It was in Alexandria that the first Library was created. In today’s words, this could be compared to a university. Ptolemy I Soter, initially founded a Museum inside the Temple of the Muses (hence the name Museum), where all art and sciences were brought together. 

It seems that the Library was, in fact, an extension of the temple built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, his son. Like every other building in Alexandria, we only have a slight idea of what it looked like as, to this day, very few remains have been unearthed. An outstanding effort to visualize the great Library was made by Kevin Kok, Senior Level Artist at Ubisoft Montreal, to recreate the complex as it would or could have been (see: The Library of Alexandria). In time, the terms Museum and Library were used interchangeably. 

The Library of Alexandria certainly met Alexander’s own desire to create a research center where knowledge from East and West would be collected to be shared by all. The very concept existed already in the Academy and the Lyceum of Athens, but at Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the ancient world had grown into another dimension. We must credit Ptolemy for understanding Alexander’s vision and executing his ambition. 

Eventually, great scientists flocked to Alexandria, exchanging and discussing their understanding and perception of the world. Much research was done at the Museum which held an astronomical observatory and rooms for anatomical dissections and where all sorts of experiments were carried out. The site also included botanical and zoological gardens. How modern is that! 

It is generally accepted that Dimitrios of Phaleron was responsible for the Library organization. With the budget made available by Ptolemy II, he collected all the books he could, including the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. Ptolemy III continued this trend, and the Library could boast of having half a million parchment rolls. Among them were all the great Greek works from Homer onward! 

After the death of Dimitrios, Zenodotus of Ephesus took over, assisted by Callimachus of Cyrene. This Callimachus is credited to be the first to classify 120,000 works of prose and poetry, sorting them by author and subject. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was appointed around 235 BC as the new head of the Library. He concentrated on mathematics, astronomy, and geography. We’ll remember Eratosthenes’ contribution to calculating planet earth's size after Pythagoras had declared that the earth was a sphere (see: Alexander missed Eratosthenes by less than a century). 

Great scientists widely contributed to the Library. Euclid wrote his Elements of Geometry, which is still used today, and also a book on astronomy and one on perspective, the Optica. Archimedes, a native of Syracuse, probably studied in Alexandria. He is best known for his theory of calculating the volume, which he discovered while bathing. He was so excited about his discovery that he ran out of his house, stark naked, shouting “Eureka!” - I found it! (see: Archimedes, the most illustrious citizen of Syracuse). The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus of Nicaea, who made great use of the Library of Alexandria.  Besides being a geographer and a mathematician, he also was the inventor of trigonometry, and most famous for discovering the precession of the equinoxes in the late 2^nd century BC. 

Lesser known but equally important is Ctesibius of Alexandria, the inventor of toys and devices using air under pressure, i.e., pneumatics. He created automatons such as a water clock, a fire engine, and even a singing statue. He also invented the first keyboard-wind instrument, the hydraulis, a recreation of which is exhibited in the Museum of Dion, Greece (see: Close encounter with an ancient Water-Organ). 

By 62 AD, Hero of Alexandria even invented the first steam engine! Imagine our world if this invention had not been lost. 

The list of scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, physicians, and inventors seems endless. All their knowledge was born in Alexandria, from where it spread over the entire antique world for more than three hundred years! The famous Lighthouse of Alexandria, the Pharos, was one of the Seven Wonders of the World, shining its light over a great distance thanks to an intricate system of mirrors. How it actually worked remains obscure. It was probably damaged by the catastrophic earthquake that hit the entire coast of North Africa in 365 AD. Repairs never resuscitated this unique structure. 

Alexandria was also the center where Medical Science was born under Herophilus. He was the first scientist to systematically perform dissections of dead people, often in public, to explain his actions to those interested in these matters. His books are lost but were frequently quoted in the 2nd century AD by the physician Claudius Galenus, better known as Galen of Pergamon (see: Hello? Dr. Galen?) 

Other Libraries were known from antiquity (see: Libraries in antiquity, a short overview), but none surpassed the one in Alexandria. 

After centuries of glory, this great Library succumbed to earthquakes and repeated fires. The lack of funds to sponsor and maintain the premises was another reason for its degradation. Eventually, the knowledge was transferred to Antioch, and with the Arab conquest to Baghdad. We owe very much to Caliph Al-Mansur (754-775 AD), who had a vivid interest in Greek science. He ordered the Greek documents to be translated into Arabic. Over the centuries, these translations traveled back west to become available in Latin. In fact, Al-Mansur saved ancient Greek literature and science for us to enjoy today. This entire process is developed in detail by John Freely in his book Aladdins’ Lamp. How Greek science came to Europe through the Islamic World.