It is entirely by accident that I came across the mention of The Citadel of
Alexander the Great in Farah,
Afghanistan. I
must confess that I never looked for it as I didn’t expect to find much traces
of the Macedonian king in that country.
Farah is the modern name for ancient Phrada,
Alexandria
in Drangianaor Alexandria Prophthasia. Besides
being a fortress, the site made headlines because of the famous conspiracy of Philotas that occurred in 330 BC (see: The
Philotas Affair). After the treachery of Philotas was brought to a good end – at
least for Alexander – Alexandria
in Drangiana was renamed Alexandria Prophthasia, appropriately
meaning “Anticipation” since Alexander
anticipated widespread consequences and acted before the others could
attack him.
The events as
told by Curtius unfolded in and
around Alexander’s tent. That is
probably the reason why I was not looking for a nearby fortress of any kind. On
the other hand, it has not been established with certitude that Alexandria
Prophthasia is to be found on the site of Farah either.
Under these
circumstances, it is not unreal to assume that local legend has its own truth
and that the Citadel of Farah was
once occupied by Alexander and his
Macedonians. Reaching a diameter of approximately one square kilometer, its
size is impressive enough. Even today, the earthen walls, which initially were
about 15 meters
high, crown the hill next to Farah’s
bazaar.
Farah as all of Afghanistan,
unfortunately, lacks in-depth archaeological research and excavations. Alexander’s occupation may, after all,
be resting on local folklore. Another theory is that the citadel was built by
the Zoroastrians in the days of Darius I
(the Great), i.e., in the 6th century BC. This would mean that
it already existed when Alexander
arrived.
After the king’s
death, the Seleucids ruled the region until in the 2nd century BC the
Graeco-Bactrians emerged followed by the Parthians and eventually, the Sacae.
It is not
surprising that because of the repeated later additions and transformations, the
origin of this fort remains enigmatic. The Citadel is in deplorable condition,
and recent occupations by the Soviet army and the Mujahedeen fighters have led
to serious disrepair of the site.
All is not lost,
it seems since funds are being requested officially with the Ministry of
Information and Culture to restore the historic site.
It will take much effort
and even more time to disclose the story behind these walls, especially since
so much of Afghanistan is in dear need of excavation and protection (see: Saving
Afghanistan’s Incredible Heritage).
It is common knowledge that Alexander valued friendship above all. His
first core group of friends took shape at an early age when they joined him in Mieza
for Aristotle’s
tutoring and these friendships lasted till the end of his life. Harpalos was one of them, and he was
among those who were exiled by Philip
for siding with and supporting his son in the Pixodarus
affair. Once he became king, Alexander
called them back and promoted them to high positions in his army. Harpalos, however,being physically unfit for military duty, was assigned as Treasurer.
In Alexander’s eyes, his friends could do no wrong, and a few such
examples have transpired. There is Philotas’ first conspiracy in Egypt
that was reported by his mistress Antigone
and confirmed by Coenus, who was
married to Philotas’
sister Antigone – strong evidence that
Alexander refused to believe. That
was in 332 BC, and Philotas
survived another two years before being put to death in Alexandria
in Drangiana for failing to report or for participating in another
conspiracy to take Alexander’s life. It
is pretty significant that the king left most of the judging and sentencing to
his Companions and the Macedonian army.
The case of Harpalos is another matter and by far the most enigmatic example. Just
before Alexander engaged in the Battle
of Issus, and for some obscure reason, Harpalos fled to Megarid in Greece. He may have cowardly chickened
out, not believing in his king’s victory against Darius,
and seeking a safe haven elsewhere. Or, he may have been under the bad
influence of a certain Tauriscus, who escaped
at the same time to find refuge in Italy. In any case, this indicates
that both men had serious reasons to fear Alexander’s
wrath for whatever wrongdoing or embezzlement they had committed.
Two years later, however, Alexander inexplicably called Harpalos back and reinstated him with
the resounding title of Guardian of the Babylonia Treasury and the Revenues Accruing Theretoand put him in charge of the enormous treasures
he had so far collected in Asia Minor and in Egypt. Alexander reassured Harpalos
that he would not be punished for whatever happened before. Why he made this
decision or what triggered it is everyone’s guess. One would think he had
enough capable and responsible officers in his army, he could trust with this
highly sensitive position besides Harpalos.
Maybe the fact that the aunt of his friend, Phila, was one of his father’s wives played
a role, since this relationship also made him a family member. In any case,
there is no rational explanation for Alexander’s
decision. The fact remains that Harpalos
occupied the most powerful position compared to Alexander’s other friends and this was in spite of the fact that he had
betrayed his king’s trust.
After seizing the intact treasuries of Babylon,Persepolis,
and Pasargadae,
Alexander put the largest wealth ever
accumulated in history into Harpalos' hands,
installing him in Ecbatana
with 6,000 troops to guard the booty.
As Alexander headed
further east into the heart of Central Asia, his treasurer moved to Babylon
where he lavishly spent the amounts of money for his own pleasures with prostitutes and
hetaerae, setting up a court only equaled by Nero
a few centuries later. He picked a courtesan from Athens named Pythionice, who was covered with gifts worthy of a queen. This
extravagant love affair did not last, for she soon died and was interred in a
stunning memorial for the baffling price of 200 talents paid for by the
treasury. Yet Harpalos’ megalomania
did not stop there since he also built a temple in Babylon
where she would be worshiped as Aphrodite Pythionic and another expensive
monument on the Sacred Road
in Athens.
This last epitaph was witnessed by our traveling reporter Pausanias
several centuries later, who considered it unworthy of the 30 talents it had
cost.
After this extravaganza, Harpalos
sent for another Athenian hetaera, Glycera.
Like her predecessor, she lived like a queen and even received divine honors.
Her beauty was trumpeted forth in Syria
with a statue dedicated to her beauty and at Tarsus,
where a luxurious palace was constructed for her pleasure.Harpalos showed no respect for Alexander
and certainly did not reciprocate his friendship. Like on the eve of the Battle
of Issus, he probably expected his king to be the underdog in one of
the many fights, battles, skirmishes, and confrontations with the barbarians in
the east. Alexander would evidently
be killed and never return to the court Harpalos
had cut out for himself at Babylon.
But Alexander did return
from India
and soon discovered how many satraps had taken advantage of their privileged position
to fill their own pockets. His response was immediate, and he promptly executed the
culprits there and then. Obviously, Harpalos
had every reason to expect his king’s anger, and he feared for his life. He
packed up as much money as he could possibly carry, and with 5,000 talents [that
is the equivalent of three billion dollars] and 6,000 mercenaries, he set sail
for Athens.
It is known that Alexander
sent three different embassies to demand Harpalos’
extradition, but they all returned empty-handed. Thanks to lavish bribes paid by
Harpalos to the Athenian politicians
– led by the ever-sour Demosthenes
- who still resented Alexander’s
successes and the Macedonian power, he was able to escape. Eventually, Harpalos was captured in Crete and assassinated by his own men, one year before
the king’s own death.
How is it possible that Alexander,
the conqueror of the world, was unable to catch and judge Harpalos wherever he was? Many men were killed for stealing less
than Harpalos’ extravagant
expenditure and the 5,000 talents (equaling 142 tons of silver and 14 tons of
gold) he took with him to Athens.
Alexander must have been aware of
this corruptible behavior but turned a blind eye to it? Neither stupidity nor
ignorance can be the reason for Alexander’s
action – or non-action - and the most obvious explanation would be
mismanagement.
This is an extremely serious accusation, and it is hard to believe
that a bright mind like Alexander’s
could be capable of such a misjudgment and such a miscalculation. As strange as
it may be, it seems that Alexander
was not truly interested in money but rather in conquering new territories and
expanding his power, since there are other examples of embezzlement that were
left unpunished or which he somehow accepted.
There is the case of Cleomenes,
whom Alexander had appointed in Egypt to collect taxes and manage his finances,
including the building of Alexandria.
This man had set up a shady trade business selling wheat to Athens, extorted money from the
priests on a broad scale, and cheated the soldiers in his service. An official
complaint was filed and sent to Alexander,
and guess what? The king not only pardoned Cleomenes
for said crimes, ordering him to build a temple in honor of Hephaistion,
but he also forgave him all future violations! Unbelievable! Ptolemy
was much smarter, and as soon as he became king of Egypt, he executed Cleomenes. Chop-chop!
In between Harpalos’ two
appointments as treasurer, there were the cases of Coeranus and Philoxenus,
who got away with exorbitant amounts of money. The final replacement for Harpalos, Antimenes of Rhodes, made a reputation for oppression by imposing outrageous
taxes, setting up a swindle business with slave owners and travelers on the
royal roads. All these financial officers somehow escaped disciplinary actions,
or at least none are being documented besides the cases of Harpalos and Cleomenes.
Maybe it is true that Alexander
was not much interested in money, at least not beyond the strict necessity to
finance his next campaign or war, which would automatically generate a new
inflow of money. He loved to give and he gave in style, not only to his close
friends but also to new allies (e.g. Porus), to his soldiers as a prize for merit
and bravery in combat, and to his veterans sent back to Macedonia, including
travel expenses, bonuses, and stipends for the wives they left behind in Asia. He
entirely financed the huge Susa
wedding, i.e., his own but also that of his one hundred Companions, and he offered
wedding gifts for his 10,000 Macedonians who had taken Asian brides on the
road. When he heard that his army was in deep debt, he paid them some 20,000
talents out of his own pocket (evidently from his treasury), requiring 280 tons
of coins.
Being the richest man in the world with wealth acquired in a short
decade, Alexander could not call on
anyone with enough experience and skills to manage such huge sums. Even
he, although a brilliant general and military leader, had no training in
managing such enormous amounts of gold and silver. Even his shrewd father had
always spent his money before even having it in his hands, but in his case, the consequences
were limited because the amounts were less, and the world in which he moved was
much smaller.
To Alexander’s credit, it
should be noted that he leaned heavily on the existing Persian administrative
system created by Cyrus
the Great, but its true implementation would have taken more time since
his Macedonian commanders and officers did not (yet) share Alexander’s broad vision of this new world he had created. In the
end, they never did, for within one year their king was dead and they now had to
manage the empire on their own. This, they could not do either, and they fought
each other in fierce competition for the next forty years.
The following morning, all soldiers are called to assemble under arms. The corpse of Dymnus is brought in, although out of sight of the army, and finally, Alexander appears with a grave and sad look on his face. This is no small matter. He has to conduct the investigation and present the case before his Macedonians, following the prevailing laws. Alexander’s speech is worthy of any plea held by the most accomplished lawyer – a masterpiece in the art of rhetoric (see: Alexander’s eloquence).
He starts by telling his soldiers how closely he escaped death. He shares his deep sorrow at having fallen victim to a conspiracy led by Parmenion, the eldest of his friends who enjoyed so many favors and so much prestige. His tool was his own son, Philotas, together with Peucolaüs and Demetrius, and Dymnus, whose body is then made visible to the crowd. Laments and sounds of indignation arise.
At this point, the informants Nicomachus and Cebalinus, together with Metron, are brought forward, and Alexander praises them for their courage as they go straight to his tent to warn him of the conspiracy. Philotas in an effort to keep the matter quiet, must have had good reasons to do so, Alexander says. He then reads aloud a letter Parmenion had sent to his sons, Nicanor and Philotas, and which Alexander had intercepted. In this letter, Parmenion advised them to look out for themselves, “for thus we shall accomplish what we have planned”. A sentence that had no meaning would have had the conspiracy not been disclosed. Alexander takes his plea a step further by confiding his hitherto personal skepticism about Philotas who had joined Amyntas (Alexander’s uncle who was under age when his father was killed on the battlefield, upon which Philip was chosen as Macedonia’s new king; with Philip’s death he could have claimed the throne) to make an impious plot against his life. He tells his soldiers how these acts have torn him apart, working on their sentiments.
Alexander proceeds by reminding his troops that he had put Philotas in command of his elite cavalry, entrusting his life, his hopes, and his victories to him. He had elected his father, Parmenion, to rule over Media with all its richness, a position that demanded integrity and respect for his king. Now his trust had been broken as he had fallen victim to such a shameful scheme!
We should remember that at this time, Parmenion is in Ecbatana, holding the army’s supply line and guarding the huge treasury reaped from the Persian cities of Susa, Persepolis, andPasargadae with a number of troops that equaled Alexander’s own manpower. Parmenion enjoyed great prestige while he served under Philip and led Alexander’s left wing in many decisive battles at the head of the foreign cavalry and mercenaries. It is obvious that an uprising or a coup led by Parmenion would have colossal consequences for Alexander!
Philotas is then brought forward with his hands tied behind his back to stand trial before the army. One can imagine the reaction of the Macedonians who had seen this great general having dinner with the king only the night before, standing there as a wretched prisoner. Sensing that the army started to feel sorry for Philotas, General Amyntas held a harsh speech against the culprit, followed by Coenus, who spoke even more vehemently, accusing him of being a traitor to the king, his country, and the army.
The last person to speak was Philotas. Maybe he was dazed by the seriousness of the accusations, maybe he was truly weak after being questioned and/or tortured, and in any case, he burst into tears and fainted. When he was back on his feet, Alexander looked intently at him and reminded him that the Macedonians were about to pass judgment on him, upon which he left the assembly. Philotas is on his own now.
It is clear that Philotas also reaped the fruits of Aristotle’s teaching at Mieza, as his plea is as well constructed as Alexander’s. He starts working on the soldiers’ emotions right away by saying that it is easy to find words when innocent, but difficult for a wretched man as he stands before them in fetters. He cleverly highlights the fact that none of the conspirators has named him, neither Nicomachus nor Cebalinus, but despite that, the king believes him guilty and the leader of the conspiracy. Dymnus, when he confided in Nicomachus, named several men of great importance but left him out – how could that put him in charge?
In the depths of his own despair, Philotas presents his own defense by saying that he can only be found guilty for keeping silent about the matter when it was reported to him. Besides, Alexander pardoned him and gave him his right hand to restore their friendship. What made the king change his mind overnight? He, Philotas, went to bed and was awoken by his arrestors from a sound sleep, not the sleep of someone whose conscience is tormented. After all, the report about the plot was revealed by a young boy who could present no proof or witness of his information, hence he believed that it was a lovers’ quarrel. And, supposing that he was really guilty of conspiracy, why would he have concealed the information for two days when he could easily have killed Cebalinus right away? After speaking with him, he nevertheless had entered the royal tent alone wearing his sword, and yet he put off the deed?
His tone turns when he admits that he does not have the power of divination and pities those who have to live under a man who believes himself to be the son of Zeus – a serious hint towards Alexander’s latest godly descent, which he obviously resents. He recalls the letter that Parmenion had sent to Alexander in Tarsus, warning him that his doctor was ready to poison him with the potion to cure his illness – a warning Alexander ignored. So why would Alexander believe him when he announces the plot reported by Cebalinus? What should I have done, he asks the assembly, when the king both dismisses a warning and accuses me of not warning him?
But the assembled soldiers give vent to their frustration about Philotas' haughty conduct towards them and even accuse him of pretending not to speak or understand their very own Macedonian language. Tempers flare up high at this stage and they shout that the traitor deserves to be torn to pieces. At this crucial moment, Alexander reappears and adjourns the council to the next day.
Again, he meets with his friends, who recommend that Philotas should be stoned to death in compliance with Macedonian law. Maybe that would be too simple, who knows, for Hephaistion, Craterus, and Coenus want to get to the bottom of this affair and wish for a confession by torture. After they set out to execute the torture, Alexander waited for the outcome in his tent till late that night.
As the appropriate instruments are laid out, Philotas admits immediately that he planned the murder, too afraid, probably, to undergo the torture, but Craterus is not impressed. They use fire and whiplashes till Philotas can no longer endure the suffering and concedes to tell everything he knows.
Meanwhile, unrest arose among those Macedonians more or less closely related to Philotas, who feared for their lives as well. The commotion reaches the royal tent, and Alexander makes a proclamation by which he remits the law providing the punishment of those related to the guilty party.
After yet another plea, and to cut a long story short, Philotas confesses to the conspiracy. He even includes his father in the plan. Parmenion, being seventy years old, could not wait too long to take charge, and that is why they decided to promptly carry out the design. By now, the torturers agree that all their questions have been answered, and they return to Alexander, who issues the order for Philotas’ words to be made public the next day in his very presence.
Philotas is put to death, either stoned or speared, together with all those who had been named by Nicomachus. Parmenion had to be eliminated as well, and Alexander writes a letter to three generals in Parmenion’s entourage (Cleander, Sitalces, and Menides) with orders to put him to death.
Well, this is basically Curtius’ (probably dramatized) version of the facts, although it is not entirely shared by Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch. Their rendering of the conspiracy and the torture varies, and it is unclear whether Philotas was only guilty of negligence or merely ignored Cebalinus’ information in the hope that the plot would succeed, which would work in his favor. In any case, Curtius gives an excellent assessment of the general mood in the Macedonian camp that remained seriously divided after this.
To remember that this treachery was brought to a good end – at least for Alexander – Alexandria in Drangiana is renamed Alexandria Prophtasia, appropriately meaning “Anticipation” since Alexander anticipated the widespread consequences of the plot and acted before others could attack him. [Pictures from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander are from Movie Screen Shots and The World of Alexander the Great]
In 330 BC, when encamped at Phrada (modern Fara in Afghanistan), also called Alexandria-in-Drangiana, Philotas was accused of conspiracy against Alexander. A similar accusation had been brought to Alexander’s attention before, when he was in Egypt, by Antigone, Philotas’ mistress, but at that time, he had refused to believe it. This time, however, there was solid proof, and one of the accusers included Coenus, who was married to Philotas’ sister.
Curtius, as usual, gives by far the most detailed report, which by itself reads like the script for a thriller. The story starts with a certain Dymnus, a man of little importance, who was madly in love with young Nicomachus and anxious to bind him to his person. He lures him into the temple, saying that he has something very important and confidential to share with him. Under the spell of his deep affection, Dymnus demands his lover to pledge under oath to keep silent what he is about to disclose, and Nicomachus, not expecting anything incumbent, complies. Satisfied, Dymnus then tells him that a plot against Alexander has been arranged and will be executed in three days, adding, to give himself more importance, that he shares the plan with some brave and distinguished men. The young man’s reaction, however, is pure horror, and he immediately tells Dymnus that he cannot take part in such treason and cannot be bound by his oath to the gods to keep such a crime secret!
Dymnus is furious, hurt in his love, and fearing betrayal, he begs him to take part in the plot; if he cannot do this, at least he should not betray him, for, after all, he trusted him with his life. As Nicomachus stubbornly continues to express his abhorrence of the crime, Dymnus tries to frighten him by saying that the conspirators would take his life before taking that of their king. To no avail. Dymnus then tries every trick of the trade to convince him. He goes as far as to pull his sword, pointing it to his lover’s throat, then to his own, and in the end forces him to promise his silence as well as his support.
In reality, Nicomachus has not changed his mind; he just pretends to go along, saying that out of love for Dymnus, he could not refuse, and then inquires about the other associates in this highly important matter. Dymnus congratulates him on his decision to join the other conspirators like Demetrius (belonging to Alexander’s bodyguard), Peucolaüs, Nicanor, and also men like Aphobetus, Iolaus, Theoxenus, Archepolis, and Amyntas.
Imagine the load resting on Nicomachus’ shoulders at this point! He simply cannot ignore the information he has been entrusted with and shares it with his brother, Cebalinus. In order not to make Nicomachus suspicious of betrayal by going to Alexander, Cebalinus enters the vestibule of Alexander’s tent, where he waits for one of the king’s friends to appear. It happens to be Philotas, and Cebalinus reveals the plot to him, insisting that he should tell Alexander at once. Philotas remains with Alexander for some time but does not mention the conspiracy. When Cebalinus meets Philotas later that night and inquires if he has done what he requested, Philotas simply states that Alexander had no time to talk with him, and he walks away. The next day, Cebalinus once again is near Alexander’s tent when Philotas is on his way in, and he reminds him of this most serious issue. Philotas answers that he is attending to it, but again does nothing.
At this point, Cebalinus becomes suspicious of Philotas and decides to talk to one of the king’s Pages. He approaches Metron, who is in charge of the armory. Metron instantly understands the urgency and seriousness of the matter and goes to Alexander while he is bathing. Alexander immediately orders Dymnus to be arrested and walks into the armory where Cebalinus had hidden, pending the king’s reaction. Alexander, of course, wants to know all the details, and in particular, when Nicomachus had given him the information. Upon learning that it was two days ago, Alexander puts Cebalinus in fetters, upon which the poor boy shouts that he had informed Philotas without any delay and that it was he who had withheld the news. Accusing Philotas, one of the king’s Companions and trusted friends, was unheard of, and Alexander kept on questioning Nicomachus, who time and again retells the same story.
At this point, Dymnus is to be brought before Alexander. Dymnus, however, as soon as he learned that he was called to Alexander's tent, had wounded himself with his sword, and by the time he stood before his king, his speech already failed him; he swooned and died. This certainly confirmed the man’s guilt.
Philotas, too, was summoned to the royal tent. Imagine the commotion that has risen by now! Alexander confronts him with the words reported to him by Cebalinus, adding that if he had indeed concealed the conspiracy for two days, the man deserved the extreme penalty, but since he insists that he immediately reported the information to him, Philotas, the general, has some explaining to do. Philotas is in no way disturbed by these words and replies that Cebalinus had indeed spoken to him, but that he had not given the matter any credibility and had dismissed it as a quarrel between a lover and his favorite. Yet the suicide of Dymnus proves otherwise.
At this stage, Philotas throws his arms around Alexander, begging him to consider his past deeds rather than finding fault with his silence. It is uncertain at this stage whether Alexander believes him or not; in any case, he offers Philotas his right hand, saying that the information seemed to have been rejected and not concealed. But clearly, Alexander didn’t take the matter as lightly as he made Philotas believe, and shortly afterward, he called a meeting with his friends, of which Philotas was excluded. Nicomachus is brought in, and he confirms the story as reported by his brother before.
Craterus, an important rival of Philotas, reminds the king of the general’s repeated bragging about his own valor and accomplishments and accuses him of arrogance. Taking advantage of this situation, Craterus underscores that Philotas would always be able to plot against him, and Alexander would not always be able to pardon him. The other Companions have no doubt that Philotas would not have blurred evidence of the conspiracy unless he was closely involved. If truly a loyal friend, Philotas would have hastened to his king as soon as he heard about this conspiracy. After all, Philotas had spent the whole day in amusement and allegedly had found no room to place a few words about the life and death of his king. Even if he had not taken Cebalinus seriously, why excuse himself by saying there had been no opportunity to bring the matter to Alexander’s attention?
The charges were clear, and all parties present decided that Philotas should be tortured in order to obtain the names of the conspirators. Alexander dismisses his Companions with instructions to keep silent about this plan. He then issues orders that the army should prepare for a march the next day, keeping everyone in a state of alert. As a masterly strategist and a true poker player, Alexander invites Philotas to a banquet, entertains him, and talks to him familiarly as usual.
That night, when the lights had been put out, Alexander’s trusted friends gathered in his tent. Among them are Hephaistion, Craterus, Coenus, and Erigyius, as well as Perdiccasand Leonnatus. The order is given to those standing on guard at the king’s tent to remain on watch and under arms. The cavalry was already stationed at all the camp’s entrances with instructions to let nobody in or out. With these safety measures in place, a certain Atarrhias is summoned to the royal tent with 300 armed men and men-at-arms. The latest is sent out to arrest the known conspirators, while Atarrhias and his men have orders to apprehend Philotas. With fifty of his bravest soldiers, he breaks into his quarters while the rest of them surround the house to thwart any possible escape. Atarrhias finds Philotas in deep sleep, puts him in chains, and leads him to Alexander. Sources do not concur on what happens next. It is not certain whether Philotas was tortured or not to extract his confession that he and his father wanted to kill Alexander.
