Another pertinent theory about Alexander’s Tomb

All accounts on the whereabouts of Alexander’s Tomb agree up to and including Ptolemy X, who, in 89 BC used the King’s golden sarcophagus to wipe up his financial situation. He replaced the coffin with a translucent alabaster one. 

It has been documented that Cleopatra and several Roman emperors visited the tomb. Caligula and Caracalla did not shy away from taking some of Alexander’s regal attributes, nor did Aurelian and Diocletian in the 3^rd century AD. 

Alexander’s remains were saved from the disastrous tsunami that flooded the North African coast in 365 AD. They were moved to a safe location until the new Christian Emperor Theodosius decided that the cult of Alexander was a threat to his dogma. In the early 5^th century the tomb disappeared from the radar. 

Andrew Chugg in his book The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great links the disappearance of Alexander’s corpse to the first appearance of St Mark’s tomb when in 828 AD, the Saint was abducted by the Venetians. ‘San Marco’ was placed in a tomb in the crypt of the Basilica built for that purpose in 1094 – or was it Alexander? 

Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis has followed another track using Arab writings. He picked up the account of Hassan-Al-Wassan, also known by his Roman name Leonis Africanus, published in Venice in 1551. He stated having seen the body of Alexander in the crypt of a small chapel.

Another source is found in the 16th century’s description of Luis del Marmol de Carvajal, a Spanish geographer, trader, and historian also known as Claude Marmal. While in Alexandria, he actually saw the embalmed Alexander in his sarcophagus in a place close to the church of St. Mark.

The next witness is said to be George Sandys, a geographer and emissary who saw Alexander’s mummified body and sarcophagus in the same crypt in 1621. The tomb's guardians told him that in 954 Alexander was visible at the mosque Dûl-I-Qarnaïn-Nabi. In the Quran, to this day, Alexander is considered a prophet. From that mosque, Alexander was moved to another mosque and again to where Sandys saw him. 

[Picture from Anabasis, Source jeanclaudegolvin.com]

Alexander may well have a special god looking after him because, in the 18^th century, he was found safely hidden in underground tunnels in Alexandria. This seems to be the site where the French diplomat, Octave Borelli came to see the tomb in 1898. After a diplomatic meeting at the consulate, he was led to the basement where he allegedly caught a glimpse of some gold through a crack in the wall. This most certainly was not the gold of his sarcophagus since Ptolemy X had removed it. Somehow Borelli managed to dig deeper inside the basement where he recognized the body of Alexander the Great, his shield, and other artifacts and gifts (maybe this is the gold Borelli saw?) The tale sounds too good to be true! 

Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis’ account mentions that Borelli returned several times to sketch the tomb and take notes with the intention of bringing Alexander to France. Unfortunately, in 1911, before he could materialize his plans Borelli was murdered. He had not shared the location except with one close friend, whose descendant Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis met. Thanks to this descendant, he had all the pertaining information to locate Alexander’s tomb, which he did with the help of an archaeologist in 2020. 

Apparently, Alexander's sarcophagus had not moved from the consulate’s basement since the early 20^th century, but the consulate no longer exists. It has been replaced by a residential building whose owner refuses access or any excavation to be carried out. 

The above is widely based on an article Alexandre Schoedler-Tziamouranis published in the Greek Reporter in November 2022. 

There may be some truth in this theory, but Alexander’s tomb always eludes us. That is the case for the tomb of St Mark in Venice which may hold the body of Alexander and where the church refuses to open the tomb to have it analyzed. It is again the case in this basement in Alexandria where the owner refuses entry. 

A previous claim was made ten years ago when the crypt of an early Christian church in Alexandria yielded a richly decorated mausoleum that was attributed to Alexander based on the inscription reading “King of Kings, and Conqueror of the World, Alexander III”. That story was never updated (see: New speculation about Alexander’s tomb). 

And let us not forget the ongoing excavation project in Alexandria’s Shalallat Gardens where a beautiful statue of Alexander was unearthed in 2017 (see: Magnificent Alexander statue found in Alexandria)

One may wonder what hidden reasons are keeping Alexander hidden over the centuries.

Surprising city of Tripolis in Turkey

Tripolis can be found some 20 kilometers from the famous site of Pamukkale and the ancient city of Hierapolis. Its name meaning three cities is due to its location, i.e., at the crossroads of Phrygia, Lydia, and Caria, on the northern bank of the Meander River. From here, it was a convenient hub to reach Sardes, Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir), and Laodicea. 

Although Tripolis existed in Hellenistic times, it reached its peak in the 2^nd century AD as testified by the remains we find here today. 

The city could be entered by two gates, the Gate of Hierapolis on the southern side and the Gate of Philadelphia at the western end.

[Picture from Female Fearless Travels]

Excavations have exposed a straight colonnaded street of ten meters wide and 450 meters long that runs east-west through the city. It was paved with travertine slabs. At the intersection of the main streets, a Nymphaeum was discovered. This Orpheus Fountain rested on a marble floor, and its walls were covered with onyx and white marble. The water came from a cistern east of the street. 

The colonnaded street is the most prominent element in Tripolis and is for now the main attraction. Pending further digs, several monuments from the 2^nd century AD have been identified, such as two Agoras, one of which borders the northern side of the street, and two Baths, the Great Thermae near the western entrance to the city, and the Theater Thermae close to the theater. The theater is estimated to seat 8,000 people. Also, the Stadium could be located just outside the city walls and measures 256x66 meters. The Bouleuterion of 64x44 meters stands in the center of Tripolis, and only part of its walls are visible. 

[Orpheus Fountain from Turkish Archeo News]

It is remarkable, however, to discover an indoor bazaar in excellent condition since it remained buried for centuries. This structure is a unique example so far in the Mediterranean. 

The fate of Tripolis was sealed after repeated earthquakes, the most severe one happening in 494 AD.  

A visit to Tripolis sounds rather inviting. The colonnaded street is very promising, but sadly little is known of the city’s role in history despite its early origin dating to the 4^th millennium BC.

With a population of nearly 20,000 in the 2^nd century AD, I assume an emperor like Hadrian would be mentioned as he stayed in nearby Hierapolis in 129 AD. This also applies to Caracalla in 215 AD. I would not be surprised if during Hellenistic times members of the Seleucid dynasty spent time in Tripolis. Apparently, nothing of the kind has transpired from the excavations yet. It is like visiting a skeleton without a soul …

The bronzes from Bubon’s Sebasteion

Illegal digs are inevitable and Turkey with its countless antique sites is no exception. A beautiful bronze head of an unknown young man displayed at the Getty Villa has recently been identified as stolen or illegally excavated, and it is heartwarming to hear that it will be returned to Turkey. 

The Getty Museum in Malibu, California, acquired the head in 1971 and it could be established that it belonged to a now-lost life-size figure. It is marked with the letter alpha (the Greek A) at the bottom of the neck. The inlaid eyes, which always add so much character to a face, are missing. 

Dated to the period between 100 BC and 100 AD, the statue's provenance was not documented, although scholars now link it to the archaeological site of Bubon in ancient Lycia. Since the late 1960s, several bronzes have been smuggled out of Turkey from that area. Most depicted Roman emperors and their families but the head at Getty has yet to be identified. 

In October 2023, the New York Times published an article on these bronzes from illegal digs that have been scattered around the world to various private homes and museums. 

By 1967 the looting became apparent and slowly stopped as the Turkish police found a headless bronze torso hidden in the woods near Bubon. This site turned out to be the main source for this unique collection and authorities are determined to track the looters down. 

Bubon has not been systematically excavated and all that remains are a small theater and stadium, as well as an Acropolis. The main building may have been a shrine or Sebasteion, where several bronze statues stood around a U-shaped courtyard that was probably roofed. The Sebasteion may have been started by Nero and his wife Poppea Sabina. His example was followed by eleven emperors and three empresses, the last being Gallienus, who ruled till 268 AD. In the following decades, Bubon suffered from repeated earthquakes which buried and saved the Sebasteion. 

Scholars and experts aim to restitute the group of statues, which represented an important binding factor between the citizens to the power of faraway Rome. 

In the end, the villagers themselves, now in their 60s and 70s, provided the most precious information. They described the statues and their posture and remembered how they were sold. Their plinths with the names of the emperors in Greek are still in situ. 

Lucius Verus apparently stood next to Marcus Aurelius, his adoptive brother and co-ruler. His headless statue may be at The Cleveland Museum of Art and his Bubon origin is now under investigation. 

Septimius Severus was accompanied by his wife and sons, Caracalla and Geta. His headless statue was on loan at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and has been turned over to the authorities for repatriation. Some experts believe the missing head is kept at the Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, Denmark. The head of Caracalla has been seized from the Met and his torso is probably in the hands of a Greek collector. Emperor Valerian stood nearby and his torso is now exhibited at the Museum of Burdur, Turkey. Commodus also had a plinth of his own.

In due time, more emperors will be reconciled with their names on the pedestals and more effigies or body parts will be returned to their rightful spot in Turkey. 

[Top picture from Getty Museum. Lucius Verus is mine taken at the MANN]

The ill-fated archaeological site of Viminacium

Most people never heard the name Viminacium – not surprising for who would be looking for it in Serbia? Tourists are not exactly flocking into that country which is not high on the priority list of the archaeologists either. The Balkans are a true stepchild of Europe. 

When Alexander campaigned against the people north of Macedonia in 335 BC, his march took him across the Ister (Danube) River. After subduing the Getae, he led his army back to camp where he received many envoys from other tribes along the Danube. The Celts from the Adriatic coast also visited the young king with messages of friendship, maybe including the tribes living in what was to become Viminacium.

Viminacium originated as a Celtic settlement on which the Romans built their fort in the early 1^st century AD. It eventually grew to become the capital of the Roman province of Moesia with a population reaching up to 30,000 people. The site is hidden under the fertile fields outside of the village of Stari Kostolac roughly 50 km east of Belgrade. Situated south of the Danube River, it occupied an exceptional position at the crossroads of a flourishing communication and trade network on Rome’s northern frontier. 

As no systematic excavations were ever carried out, all we have are tens of thousands of fragmentary and occasional finds. The majority of the artifacts come from the city’s necropolis which counts some 14,000 tombs - one of the largest in the region.  

Serbia, like its neighbors, does not have the infrastructure, the means, or perhaps the will to invest in the country’s past. Useless to point out that illegal digs are frequent.

So far, scanning of the area has revealed the presence of the Roman Imperial Palace, the Roman Baths, an amphitheater, a hippodrome, several temples, a mint, and a fleet of ships. Simultaneously, the ten-meter-wide colonnaded Decumanus has been located, complete with its sewage system. It also showed traces of a triumphal arch erected in 195 AD to honor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, better known as Emperor Caracalla. An inscription to that effect was found nearby. 

Otherwise, much is left to be discovered as only two percent has been explored by ‘experts’. 

Meanwhile, the locals dug out and reused Roman bricks bearing their recognizable stamp to build their own walls and houses. Even mosaics and other items served today’s needs. Nearby mining projects, a recent coal project, and a power plant function unhindered, it seems. 

As recent as 2020, a ship from the first century BC had been recovered about two kilometers away, according to the article in Phys.org News. In the summer of 2023 another ship, 20 meters long and 3.5 meters wide was discovered. This was a flat-bottom vessel powered by oars and sail that has not yet been dated. 

The decline of the ancient city of Viminacium was triggered by the invasion of the Huns in the mid-5^th century AD. By the time the Slavs settled in this area at the beginning of the 7^th century, the busy Roman settlement was entirely abandoned.

[Pictures from Phys.org News]

Alexander head found near the Black Sea

As strange as it may seem, a head of Alexander was found in Konuralp, close to the Black Sea. In antiquity, the city was named Kieros and was part of Herakleia Pontus. 

[Picture from Duzce Municipality]

The historian Memnon of Herakleia (1^st century AD) tells us that King Prusias I of Bithynia captured the city end 3^rd/beginning 2^nd century BC and renamed it Prusias. It was strategically situated on the road between Nicomedia (modern Izmit) and the Pontus region. 

The Romans, who conquered Bithynia around 74 AD, changed the name again to Prusias ad Hypium. The city was important enough to be visited by the emperors Hadrian, Caracalla, and Elagabalus. 

Although most of the ancient city is still buried under modern Konuralp, recent archaeological excavations have exposed remains of the city walls and a gate, a theater, an aqueduct, and a Roman bridge. Inscriptions mention the presence of a gymnasium and an agora. However, there is not enough information to establish the layout of Prusias ad Hypium, and crucially there is nothing to indicate the reason for Alexander’s presence at this location. 

The marble head attributed to Alexander was discovered at the top of the theater. It is 23 cm tall and has been dated to the 2^nd century AD. This is not much information to go by but hopefully, more news will follow.

Previous excavations also exposed a head of Apollo and Medusa.

Museum of Tripoli, Libya

There are several reasons to write about the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli. It is one of those ‘must-see’ places that sadly are off the beaten track for the average tourist, especially since Gaddafi has been eliminated and the country has not regained its stability. 

I was privileged to visit this wonderful collection just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring, unaware of the quantity and high quality of artwork that awaited me. It must be said that I discovered these treasures on my first day in Libya, and, as always, I should have returned after my tour of the archaeological sites as well. 

Anyway, I took in as much as I could, fully aware that the best pieces from any excavation made their way to the museum in the country’s capital. Tripoli was no exception. 

The bulk of the collection comes from Leptis Magna, second to Rome (see: An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya). 

The first statues I see are two magnificent Roman copies of Praxiteles’ originals from the 4th century BC. One is the Diadumenos, a young athlete who is tying the ribbon of victory around his head. The other is Apollo-Antinous, hinting at Dionysus, combining the body of Apollo with the head of Antinous, the lover of Emperor Hadrian. Both life-size marbles were recovered from the Baths of Hadrian in Leptis Magna. The arched vaults of these baths from the 2nd century AD have simply collapsed, burying and saving their precious statues in the process. 

Stealing the show is the marble Apollo playing the lyre. He is a little taller than life-size and as true to life as imaginable. Apollo’s delicate hands and fingers seem to strike the strings as he holds his instrument with his left hand and the plectrum in his right. The lyre is intact, except for the strings, and it is a unique opportunity to have a close-up look. His eyes, whose traces of paint make them alive, stare melancholically into the distance. They are a vivid reminder of all the painted statues in antiquity. Apollo’s body is truly worthy of a god. 

The elegant Muse Calliope is sitting nearby, listening carefully to his tune. More remarkable statues gather around Apollo. An unspecified sea goddess is looking up to him, and Mars is standing in a niche behind him. The slender Isis is wearing a diadem, and Venus is very similar to other copies of the famous Aphrodite of Cnidos (see: Was Alexander the Great aware of Cnidos?). Hadrian definitely had an outspoken taste for beauty! 

Another large group of statues and busts is brought together from the theater of Leptis Magna, consisting mainly of Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, etc. Even Augustus' wife, Livia and granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder, are present. Upstairs, in the Mezzanine, there is a statue of Faustina, the wife of Marcus Aurelius. 

Inside the theater of Leptis Magna stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres-Augusta, goddess of the harvest – our word for cereal derives from the name Ceres. A seated statue of this goddess also found its way to the museum. 

The goddess Cybele, with the many breasts (or whatever they represent) as worshiped in Ephesos, was unearthed in the sanctuary of the amphitheater. A Roman copy of a Greek original Diana/ Artemis, as displayed at the Louvre in Paris and the Archaeological Museum of Antalya, is also exhibited. 

The Ancient Forum of Leptis Magna yielded a rather damaged Dionysus with satyr and panther, and a headless Lady Fortuna wearing a beautifully draped tunic. 

The museum’s impressive main hall also displays four delicate mosaics from a private villa in Leptis Magna. It dates from the 2nd century AD and depicts scenes of daily life in and around the Nile – hence its name, Villa of the Nile. 

Upstairs, a special room holds the original reliefs of the Arch of Septimius Severus (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus), proof of the political loyalty of the inhabitants of Leptis Magna in the 3rd century. The relief of Septimius Severus standing between his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, was meant to express the good harmony inside the imperial family. Here is also a statue of Caracalla as a child. 

The Cyrene Room has a wooden scale model of the Agora, which, unfortunately, is meaningless unless one has visited the site. Nearby are faceless goddesses believed to represent Persephone from the necropolis of Cyrene. Also, a rare Minerva wearing the Aegis tied to her waist as opposed to her Greek version, Athena, who wears it around her shoulders. She also holds her owl and carries the spear and shield. The statue is carefully carved in pure Greek tradition. 

The Archaeological Museum of Tripoli has a rich collection of mosaics from the 2nd century AD. Many villas were built along the Mediterranean coast by wealthy landowners who loved to show off. One such example is the Roman Villa of Zliten, some 200 km east of Tripoli. It yielded a large floor mosaic executed in a wonderful combination of opus sectile and clearly outlined opus vermiculatum. The central panel is filled with different sorts of fish, and the border with less peaceful scenes of gladiator fights. From the same villa comes the floor mosaic representing the Four Seasons. Tajura is located closer to Tripoli, where another Roman villa from the 2nd century AD has been spotted. A large mosaic with geometric figures and the head of the sea god, Amfitritus, in its center has been removed from the Villa of the Nereids. 

Unfortunately, I did not visit any of these villas since they were usually closed to preserve them. Under the present chaotic regime, I wonder how many of these precious villas have survived the revolt and looting in the wake of Gaddafi’s execution. 

From Ghirza, a Roman fortress near Misrata, an entire Mausoleum from the 4th century AD has been moved to the entrance hall of the museum. It has a strange mixture of different styles that can hardly be defined. 

It is, of course, preferable to leave such constructions and the precious statues and mosaics in situ, but in case of political unrest and war, the artifacts are generally better protected inside the walls of a museum. It so happens that the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli is housed inside the so-called Red Castle of Tripoli. In 2011, following the outbreak of the Libyan Civil War, the museum was closed, but rebels managed to break into the museum and steal a few of Gaddafi’s belongings that were kept in a special room. Previously, the most valuable artifacts had been moved to a safer location. As of 2020, the museum is still closed.

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II

(continued from Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I)

At the end of Leptis Magna's Market, the Cardo continues through a rectangular Byzantine city gate to reach the Old Forum resting on Punic remains. 

This Old Forum automatically triggers visions of what may have been visible in Rome! The square is surrounded on all sides by temples, one for every god that matters, it seems. Immediately to the left is a temple that was converted into a church. Clockwise, followed by a portico and altar to Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Liber Pater, the Temple of Augustus and Rome, the Temple of Hercules, and a stele to Caius, son of Hanno. To the right are the Curia and an Old Basilica, in front of which is a small temple to the goddess Cybele. In the middle of this carefully paved Forum is a Baptistery. 

The sand-covered street behind the Old Forum is an invitation to climb to the dune top, where the beautiful deep blue Mediterranean shines as it has done over the centuries. All is calm! 

Today, the Wadi Lebda is only a small river or a dry riverbed, but in its heyday, it was Leptis Magna's harbor, complete with quays and jetties. We can still see the holes into which poles were inserted and used by the ships to tie their anchor ropes. This port was short-lived. The river had been very skillfully diverted, and several dams were built upstream to prevent the sand from siltting up the harbor. However, the harbor mouth was oriented in such a way that the undercurrent from the sea drew the sand in, and the harbor silted up anyway. Surprisingly, great master builders like the Romans could make such a mistake! 

Yet, this port appears as if it could be used again once the harbor is filled with water! The quay follows the river's course with a curvature towards the sea. There are also downward steps at regular intervals to enable the loading and unloading of the ships. At the head of the peninsula stood a lighthouse. 

In the days of Septimius Severus, an impressive colonnaded street, 420 meters long, ran parallel to the Wadi Lebda from the city center down to Leptis Magna's harbor. 

This Via Colonnata was 40 meters wide and paved with white marble slabs. It was flanked on both sides by a ten-meter-wide portico, reducing the central avenue to 20 meters. The Stoas were supported by 125 grey-green cipollino columns resting on a white marble base and crowned with white marble Pergamese capitals. The red-tiled roofs provided shade in summer and protected the citizens from the rain in winter. It must have been a sight for sore eyes! 

What remains today is a non-inspiring dirt road with bits of columns and carved stones. But the side street provides a helpful visual tool as half a dozen similar cipollino columns still stand tall. 

Behind these columns rises the high outside wall of the Severan Basilica, built by Septimius Severus and completed by his son, Caracalla, in 216 AD. This two-story monument measures 92x40 meters. The hall is crowded with two rows of two-story monolithic columns made of red Aswan granite set on white marble bases and carrying white marble Corinthian capitals. 

Like all Basilicas, this was originally a court of law converted into a church in Byzantine times. Quite unique in the present case is an apse at each end. Both apses are framed by white marble pilasters and half-columns decorated with high reliefs of plants and animals. On the north side are carved figures of Dionysus with satyrs and Maenads, whereas the south side shows the Twelve Labors of Hercules. On a sunny day, the depth of the skilled artwork really shows. In the middle of the apses are two substantial red granite columns with white marble Corinthian capitals topped with griffons that supported the roof. Like all other buildings in Leptis Magna, the walls were constructed using local limestone that was readily available. The roof would be made of wood. There may well have been windows underneath that roof to let the daylight in. At the center of the Basilica, there is also a kind of pulpit that is only partly visible. In an adjacent room on the south side of the Basilica, the Byzantines built a cruciform Baptistery. 

This Basilica is another illustration of the glory of Rome, considering its size, the use of precious marble and granite, and the craftsmanship of the details, of which there are many. 

The Basilica's west side corresponds to the Imperial Forum's short side, the Forum Novum Severianum, a gigantic square of 60x100 meters. The high walls of the surrounding buildings accentuate the size. Originally, a portico ran around the Forum, supported by Pergamese columns as found on the Via Colonnata. They are only visible on the Basilica side, where part of the portico is occupied by a row of shops. 

The beauty of this Imperial Forum may be found among the arches that span the top space between the columns. The area above each column and between the arches is filled with roundels depicting reliefs of the head of Medusa or a Nereid. A row of arches has been reconstructed on the left (long) side of the Forum, resting on Pergamese capitals. In total, at least 73 of these large medallions have been found. All Medusa heads are different and look at you from deeply furrowed eyebrows. A Nereid head is clearly placed at the end of the row. 

Opposite the Basilica on this same Forum stood the Temple of the Gens Septimia, dedicated to the worship of the Septimius family. It is said to have been built following the typical Roman pattern, high on top of a podium, and decorated with columns of red Aswan granite. No wonder this Forum is meant to be a replica of Trajan's in Rome. Septimius Severus' message was clear: his native city could not be inferior to Rome! 

I arrive at the other end of the Via Colonnata, in a vast oval square originally surrounded by the 72 columns of the Stoa. Overlooking this space stood a Nymphaeum several levels high. The back wall was entirely covered with marble, and the many niches were decorated with the most graceful statues. In and around the fountain stood many columns and other marble artifacts. The large water basin that ran alongside the street had several fountains. The scant remains still testify to the monumentality of this construction. 

Opposite the Nymphaeum is the empty space of an unpaved Gymnasium. The adjacent Baths of Hadrian skillfully fill the area towards the Wadi Lebda and the Nymphaeum. 

Those who have seen the Baths of Caracalla in Rome will recognize the sense of grandeur, although the remains of these thick walls are less telling. The bathing areas themselves, however, are better preserved: the Frigidarium, Tepidarium, and Caldarium, all carefully lined with white marble. Unique are the two Sudatoria connected to the Caldarium. This was a kind of sauna where pipes distributed the heat along the walls and under the floor. The complex also had two pools with adjoining latrines, and the pavement consisted of large white marble tiles. 

Unlike Roman constructions elsewhere made with bricks, the local limestone of Leptis Magna was also used for these Baths. Another striking feature is the porches on either side of the Tepidarium, where the sloping walls ensured more efficient air circulation and ventilation. Most statues from these Baths have been moved to the Museum in Tripoli – worth a visit of its own! 

[Read more at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion]

Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander

The massive circular tomb of Emperor Augustus in Rome has recently been opened to the public. This makes headline news to most people (including the Roman citizens) because the building was neglected and stood abandoned for the past 80 years. Finally, renovation works were completed, and the mausoleum has opened for visitors. 

The Mausoleum of the first Roman Emperor stands along the Tiber River just as the much better-known Castel Sant’Angelo, which initially was conceived as a mausoleum for the later Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD) and his family. 

Working on the Tomb of Augustus, archaeologists were in for some surprises. They always thought that this mausoleum was cone-shaped, but their restoration revealed a cylindrical building. That is not surprising if we look at Hadrian’s Mausoleum, which also stands along the Tiber and is cylindrical. 

As Octavian returned home after his victory over Egypt, he proclaimed himself emperor and took the name Augustus. This was the proper time to start the construction of his tomb. With his title of Emperor came the megalomania of having the largest mausoleum ever with a diameter of about 87 meters! It seems that even today, this is a world record. The idea was that the emperors coming after him would also be buried in this tomb. So the ashes of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were indeed interred in this necropolis. It must have made quite a statement with its shiny marble walls. Archaeologists suspect that an enormous statue of Augustus crowned the mausoleum. 

This type of construction was apparently not confined to Rome since other similar tombs existed in Algeria. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Tipaza may be the best-preserved example. It was built in 3 BC for King Juba II of Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, his wife. This queen was the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. She successfully ruled over Mauretania until she died in 6 BC. Her husband built this mausoleum for her, and based on its size, the idea probably was to also use it for future generations of royal families. King Juba died in 23 AD, and his remains joined those of his wife. 

The mausoleum appears not to be unique as the shape was known throughout Numidia. It may, however, also be inspired by Augustus’ tomb which was built some 25 years earlier. The circular stone construction with a diameter of 60 meters was initially topped with a cone or pyramid standing 40 meters tall. The walls were decorated around the outside perimeter with 60 Ionic columns, which have now lost their capitals. Inside there were two separate vaulted chambers. 

A recent article published on Academia by Michael Bengtsson, “Reconstruction of the Palace area in Alexandria,” sheds another light on the Mausoleum of Alexander, which was visited for centuries in Alexandria. The author has carefully reconstructed the Royal Palace of Alexandria, referring to the texts written by Zenobius, Strabo, Suetonius, and Lucan. 

Based on the striking resemblance between the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Algeria and the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Michael Bengtsson concluded that the tomb of Alexander served as a prototype for both. I think we may safely assume that the size of Alexander’s circular tomb must have surpassed all! 

In the case of the Algerian Mausoleum, we can be confident that Cleopatra Selene, born in Alexandria, thoroughly knew the Palace and the burial site of Alexander. As General Octavian, Augustus conquered Alexandria in 30 BC after winning the Battle of Actium against Marc Antony. He also visited the tomb of Alexander. And finally, Hadrian was in Alexandria in 130 BC. As a lover of all things Greek, he most certainly was full of admiration for Alexander and must have seen his tomb. He may well have been inspired to use the circular shape for his own Mausoleum.

Other Roman emperors who paid their respects to Alexander were Julius Caesar in 45 BC, Caligula, Septimius Severus early 3rd century AD, and Caracalla in the 3rd century AD. It is said that Septimius Severus closed Alexander’s tomb to the public when too many tourists flocked to see it! The crowds and tourists are of all times, it seems.

See also: Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

[Top picture from World History Encyclopedia - Second picture from Atlas Obscura - Bottom picture from Michael Bengtsson]