Greek philosophers Alexander knew

In April 2021, Mark Cartwright published an article in World History with a selection of twenty Greek philosophers. When I looked at the dates, I was amazed to discover that most of these men lived roughly one century before Alexander the Great was born. This means that the young prince and later king was familiar with their works and teaching, which covered many fields. 

Most prominent are Socrates  (c. 469-399 BC), Plato (427 - 348/347 BC), and Aristotle (384-322 BC), who are often mentioned in one breath as pre-Socratic philosophers. But there are many other great names like Pythagoras (c. 571 - c. 497 BC), who juggled with numbers, Democritus (c. 460- c. 370 BC), who wisely stated that nothing comes from nothing, Epicurus (341-270 BC), who focused on the pleasures of life, and the eccentric Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), the hippy of antiquity. 

The knowledge of these thinkers had a significant influence on the world of antiquity (including Alexander) and still inspires us in modern times. Many of these philosophers never put any of their philosophy down in writing; if they did, their own letters seldom survived. In these cases, their teaching reached us through their pupils or followers. 

The philosophy of Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) was recorded by one of his pupils, Plato. He, in turn, taught Aristotle (384-322 BC), who became the tutor of young Alexander. Thanks to Alexander’s conquests, Greek knowledge and philosophy were spread throughout the ancient world. 

Another remarkable student of Socrates was Xenophon, a favorite author of Alexander, who recounted how he led a large group of Greek mercenaries back to Greece. These soldiers had been hired by Cyrus, who had died at the battle of Cunaxa (near Babylon) in September 401 BC (see: The Persian Expedition by Xenophon). The great merit of Socrates was that he inspired men to think for themselves – a relatively modern concept! Sadly, this great mind was sentenced to death and forced to drink poison after being accused of corrupting the youth of Athens. 

Plato (427-348/347 BC) penned down his philosophical works, which would eventually influence world culture. His thoughts greatly impacted the three monotheistic religions known: as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was also the founder of the first university in the world named after him, Plato’s Academy in Athens. This happened after Socrates’ death and his own return from traveling to Egypt and Italy. Most of Plato’s works discussed the ideas expressed by Socrates, rightfully so or not. The philosopher was 80 years old when he died. His Academy may have lived on for almost 1,000 years until Emperor Justinian, a zealous new Christian believer, closed it to suppress paganism. 

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a philosopher in his own right who made considerable contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, biology, and botany. He has already been treated in previous blogs like Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle, and Aristotle’s 2,400th birthday with an appropriate celebration. 

Then there is Pythagoras (c. 571- c. 497 BC), best known for his famous Theorem stating that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares of the two other sides. However, he was also the first to concentrate on the transmigration of souls, or, in other words, reincarnation. The details of Pythagoras’ life remain obscure, but apparently, he traveled to Babylon and Egypt. However, this Theorem may not have been his invention but copied from the Babylonians. Also, the idea of reincarnation may have been transmitted to him by the Egyptian priests. In antiquity, he was considered a mystic and not the mathematician we remember nowadays. In any case, he influenced the philosophy and thoughts of both Plato and Aristotle and many later philosophers far into our modern way of thinking. 

In turn, Democritus (c. 460-c. 370 BC) revolutionized the world as he claimed that the universe and everything in it was made of tiny undividable building blocks, which we call atoms. Although he may have written as many as 70 books, none of his work has survived. He touched on various topics like human origins, ethics, geography, astronomy, geometry, medicine, poetry, literature, and even farming. Aristotle, later on, cited parts of his works. Like Pythagoras, Democritus is thought to have spent time in Egypt to study mathematics and in Babylon, where he sought the company of the priests. He seems to have voyaged around the Mediterranean and further East to Persia and India. 

Next on the list is Epicurus (341–270 BC), who taught that “Pleasure is the principle and end to a happy life.” The modern adage may have been translated into “A laughter a day keeps the doctor away.” Epicurus was strongly influenced by Plato, Aristotle, and Democritus. From 307 BC onward, he lived in Athens, where he founded his school, The Garden. Here he welcomed both women and slaves, which clearly was not to the liking of the Athenians. Putting pleasure as his highest goal in life was often misunderstood. For Epicurus, pleasure should be seen as eating and drinking in moderation and leading a life of restful contemplation. He needed to “not spoil what you have desiring what you have not; remember that what you now have was once among the things you only hoped for.” He died from kidney stones at 71, but his school and philosophy would live long after this death. 

Last on this top list is Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), who became famous for squatting in a barrel on the agora of Athens and living as a beggar from the gifts of his admirers. He was a contemporary of Alexander and died in the same year as the king. Legend has it that they met during Alexander’s visit to Corinth (see: Alexander meeting Diogenes in Corinth). This philosopher believed it was necessary to reject all that was unnecessary in life, not only one’s personal possessions but also one’s social status. The first part of this philosophy was widely accepted by Alexander, who did not care much for personal possessions! What must have shocked Diogenes' contemporaries is that he was very straightforward in his conversations and didn’t care for the rules of etiquette and good manners. Although Diogenes wished that his dead body would be thrown to the dogs, and despite his critics, he was buried with honor. 

There are, of course, many other great names such as Thales of Miletus (625-547 BC), one of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece (see: Miletus, more than a city), Parmenides, founder of the Eleatic School at the beginning of the 5th century (see: Magna Graecia, the forgotten Greek legacy) that was attended by Zeno of Elea (5th century BC) and Melissus of Samos (5th century BC) – maybe even by Xenophanes of Colophon (570-c. 478 BC) but that is not proven. 

Also listed in Mark Cartwright’s article are:

Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610-c. 545 BC), a friend of Thales wrote about astronomy as he apparently was the first to use the gnomon to determine solstices, time, seasons, and equinoxes. He also published a work on geography with the first map of the inhabited world (see: Miletus, more than a city). 

Anaximenes of Miletus was a younger contemporary and pupil of Anaximander. His theory was that the prime substance was pneuma, i.e., breath or air world (see: Miletus, more than a city) 

According to Plato, Antisthenes of Athens (c. 445-365 BC) was a follower of Socrates and may have witnessed his death. He was the founder of the Cynic School and wrote on subjects like physics, literature, and logic. 

Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 435-356 BC) founded the Cyrenaic School of Philosophy. He believed that pleasure and pursuing pleasure was the highest goal in life. That sounds rather odd coming from a pupil of Socrates. He died the year Alexander was born.

Heraclitus of Ephesus, an early Pre-Socratic philosopher who sought to identify the creation of the world (see: Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea. Why the Greeks Matter by Thomas Cahill) 

Protagoras of Abdera (c. 485-415 BC) also stood out. After all, he was the first philosopher to promote subjectivity because everything was relative to individual interpretation. In simple words, man is the measure of all things. He was the greatest among the Sophists, i.e., rhetoric, politics, and logic teachers who made a living as private tutors to the youth of the upper classes, especially in Athens. He taught them how to speak well – hence, our word sophisticated. Unlike Socrates, he was accused of impiety, which, in ancient Greece, meant he was executed. At age 71, Protagoras decided to flee from Athens before he was put on trial. Sadly, he drowned before he reached Sicily. 

Zeno of Citium on the island of Cyprus (336-265 BC). He was born in the year Alexander became king. By chance, he was exposed to the teachings of Socrates through the book, Memorabilia, written by Xenophon. Zeno’s study eventually led him to become a teacher himself as he founded a school on the porches (the Stoa) of Athens’ Agora. That’s how his school got its name, Stoic. Stoicism would become one of the most influential philosophies in the Roman world.

All in all, this is a substantial baggage the young King of Macedonia took with him to the East!

Oenoanda in the heartland of Lycia

Oenoanda or Oinoanda lies only some 60 kilometers from Fethiye, right next to the modern village of İncealiler. It is one of those untouched sites, clearly off the beaten path of which there are many in Turkey. Such places are always very rewarding to be discovered and to be explored. It is so remote that even a seasoned archaeologist like Cevdet Bayburtluoglu strongly recommends not to venture there by yourself but to take a caretaker or a villager with you to be safe from sheepdogs. These dogs are fiercely defending and protecting the flock of sheep and goats they are supposed to guard and they readily attack any intruder. No kidding!

The climb up from İncealiler to Oenoanda takes about an hour over rough terrain. It seems that, apart from a few days in 1997, the Turkish authorities never allowed the city to be excavated. Yet, that does not make the site less exciting because one can discover it as we walk on.

[Picture: Ansgar Bovet, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons]

The most striking feature in the landscape is, as always, the theater that sits higher up the hill overlooking the valley below and offers a dramatic view of the Taurus Mountains. It has been cut out of the rock and its plan closely resembles that of Myra or Phaselis, for instance.

Inside the city walls, of which many stretches are easily spotted, we find the remains of the ancient city. Unfortunately, these have not been properly documented and only the most striking features catch the eye.

A well-recognizable avenue leads from the theater to the Agora. It has been compared to Harbor Street at Phaselis as it is bordered by two steps on either side. The Agora, which is entirely paved with marble, is another prominent feature. The surrounding buildings have not been identified although we may presume based on the broken columns and stones that there was at least one temple erected alongside as is customary. A series of three distinct arches has been identified as belonging to a Library.

Otherwise, bits of columns, capitals, architraves, cornices, pedestals and stones of all sizes with or without inscriptions are scattered around in great numbers. Another recognizable element in the rubble is the broken pipes and remains of an aqueduct that must have run all the way to the Baths in the northeastern corner of Oenoanda.

The origins of Oenoanda are rather obscure but based on its name which contains the letters “-nd” the foundation could go back as far as the 2^nd millennium BC. In any case, it has been documented that Oenoanda was part of a tetrapolis annexed to Lycia. Together with Kibyra, Oenoanda became part of the Lycian League which was formed in the early 2^nd century BC and they acquired two votes each. The six main cities: Xanthos, Pinara, Tlos, Patara, Myra, and Olympos were the administrative, judicial, military, financial, and religious centers and each received three votes in the meetings of the League.

Pending serious excavations, no evidence has been found about the pre-Hellenistic Era of Oenoanda.

The city gained importance it seems, after the severe earthquake of 144 AD, when they received 10,000 denarii from Opramoas of Rhodiapolis (see: Opramoas of Rhodiapolis) to construct a Bath. It may sound strange because its own citizen, Licinius Langus of Oenoanda donated 10,000 denarii to Myra in order to rebuild their theater and its portico. He could have invested in the reconstruction of his home tome in the first place, no?

Another famous citizen of Oenoanda was the wealthy philosopher Diogenes, who spent his entire fortune on an Epicurean inscription. He had found peace of mind in the teachings of Epicurus and in order to show the people in Oenoanda the road to happiness, he commissioned an inscription 80 meters long and more than 3 meters high which set out Epicurean doctrines in about 25,000 words.  The huge inscription was placed in the agora and its large inscribed letters were painted - nobody could miss seeing them. At that time, in 120 AD, it would have been the largest ancient inscription ever found. The text included a number of instructions, letters, and epitomes defining the basic principles of Epicuraeism. In other words, a guide to happiness.

Unfortunately, the wall disappeared. It may have been deliberately destroyed or hit by an earthquake, but the scattered blocks were mostly reused as building material elsewhere. The wall with whatever remained of Oenoanda fell into oblivion, probably during the 9^th century AD.

During the 19^th and 20^th centuries, many fragments of this precious inscription were found, analyzed and partially put back together like a giant puzzle. That is a gigantic task that is still ongoing.

Oenoanda is surrounded by necropolises on all sides. Rock graves typically appear on both the east and west sides of the city and from the road between İncealiler and Oenoanda many sarcophagi, mostly of the Lycian type, are easily spotted in the landscape.

Hello? Dr. Galen?

The physician Claudius Galenus, better known as Galen of Pergamon, was the most famous doctor in the Roman world of the 2^nd century AD and probably the most famous of antiquity.

He was born in Pergamon, where he studied, and he completed his education in Smyrna (modern Izmir), Corinth, and Alexandria. He learned his skills in his natal city while serving as an apprentice at the sanctuary of Asclepius. His main clientele was the gladiators, and through this work, he gained much experience in treating wounds of all kinds. This led to an unrivaled knowledge of human anatomy, physiology, and neurology. His fame was such that it reached even the imperial court of Rome. He moved to that city in 161 AD, where he became the personal physician of the emperors Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. By that time, he had specialized in anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, but he was also well-versed in philosophy and logic.

The influence of Dr. Galen lasted for many centuries as his works were translated first into Arabic and later into Latin. His comprehension of the anatomy and physiology of the human body was not surpassed till the 17th century. He borrowed his philosophy from Plato, Aristotle, and Epicurus and wrote an analysis of dreams seventeen centuries before Sigmund Freud. Renowned Islamic physicians, pharmacologists, and botanists heavily leaned on Galen’s studies. Over the centuries, many scholars translated his books, reviving his vast field of knowledge that was, by the 11th-12th century, taught at the newly founded European universities like Oxford, Paris, and Bologna.

 

It is evident that after almost two thousand years, Galen’s legacy has been disseminated among monasteries, madrassas, museums, universities, and private collectors worldwide. This makes it difficult to get a complete list of his works and almost impossible to know to what extent our books are complete. Lady Fortuna plays a vital role in such matters, and from time to time, new works or hitherto unknown passages are discovered.

Papyri and parchments were expensive commodities in antiquity, and in the Middle Ages, thrifty monks searching for writing support for their prayers effectively reused old parchment. They scraped off the ancient manuscripts to overwrite them with their Christian psalms and hymns perpendicularly to the initial writing. This process is called Palimpsest.

[Picture from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory by Farrin Abbott]

One such Palimpsest surfaced in Germany at the beginning of the 1900s. Its origin has been traced back to the Monastery of St Catherine on the Sinai Peninsula. Close examination with special X-ray imaging revealed an underlying text in Syriac from the 6th century, constituting the most complete surviving copy of an original book by Galen. This text was erased and written over in the 11th century. 

Thanks to modern imaging and digital processing techniques, scientists and scholars have uncovered and studied the Roman physician’s original text over the past decade. Eventually, this precious evidence will be added to the existing high-resolution images made available online by the Schoenberg Institute for Manuscript Studies at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries. This institution is collecting leaves from the same Syriac manuscript that made their way to different locations, such as the libraries at Harvard University, Paris, and the Vatican, to name just a few. 

The intention is to digitally reconstruct Galen’s book. This is a long-term project, considering it takes about ten hours to scan one single page. Only when these complex scans are completed will the research team be able to start analyzing the words and thoughts of this great physician to fit them in the context of the pages that are kept elsewhere.

Details on this time-consuming research can be found in the article “Hidden Medical Text Read for the First Time in a Thousand Years” by Amanda Solliday."

Unique inscription found at ancient Teos

Teos is one of those little shrines that is often overlooked by the casual tourist, but that deserves a place among the many interesting remains spread all over Turkey. Today, Teos is a quiet fishermen’s village some 50 kilometers from Izmir.

Herodotus tells us that the site of Teos is located in the mildest places on earth, and the amazing fact is that it has provided most of the Anatolian inscriptions (about 400) giving a very detailed picture of daily life during Hellenistic and Roman rule.

Excavations started again in 2010 and the exciting news is that a 2,200 years-old inscription has been uncovered, being the most comprehensive rental agreement in history. It tells us how students of the local gymnasium between 20 and 30 years of age, the so-called Neos, received a substantial inheritance from one of the city’s inhabitants. This person donated his land to the Neos, including all structures, the slaves, and its sacred altar. In order to get some income and to cover the expenses for exploiting the parcel, the Neos rented the land. It was exempt from taxes because the parcel was accepted as being “sacred”. The agreement gives the names of the renter as well as that of his father. In order to be valid, the agreement had to be endorsed by a guarantor and had to be signed by six witnesses. In the present case, three of the witnesses happened to be top administrators of Teos.

This is the only inscription found so far that states the structure of the gymnasium and the fact that the Neos were allowed to own property. Half of this inscription is about the punishments the renter would face if he does not pay his annual rent, does not maintain the buildings, or does not properly manage the land. The Neos also vowed to inspect their property at least once a year.

It is interesting to note that these Neos served as civil servants in politics and in assemblies.

During the 3rd century BC, many important philosophers, poets, musicians, and singers formed a Dionysus Union attracting people like Anacreon, Epicurus, and Antimachus.

The role of benefactors in antiquity

Before any of our modern-day governments set up a help and assistance plan in case of emergency or catastrophe, the only help any citizen could get was from his neighbor. For more serious matters like fire, flooding, or earthquake where more substantial help was needed, the role of a benefactor was of the highest importance.

Even today, we still have millionaires and billionaires who donate all or part of their fortune to a good cause, and in some cases, it may be the only help the recipients are getting. The role of the benefactor has not really changed throughout history, but we seldom connect it to antiquity. This thought hit me while traveling through Lycia in southwestern Turkey where time and again I came across the same names, more particularly in connection with the devastating earthquake that hit the region in 141 AD.

The main benefactor or maybe the best known is Opramoas of Rhodiapolis who contributed approximately 2 billion denarii for widespread activities, an enormous amount considering that the wage of a shepherd or manual worker was about 10 denarii. This man deserved a post of his own. (See: Opramoas of Rhodiapolis).

But there are several others, who definitely merit be mentioned as well:

Licinius Langus of Oenoanda

A wealthy man from Lycia who donated large amounts to the city of Myra. Following the earthquake of 141 AD, Licinius Langus donated 10,000 denarii for the rebuilding of the theater and its portico. 
 

Jason of Cyaneae

Another Lycian philanthropist and a contemporary of Opramoas and Licinius Lanfus is said to have contributed to the development of many cities; 16 Lycian cities issued honorific decrees for him. He is said to have given handsome monetary gifts to the city of Myra. He was an important man and became the Lyciarch (the head of the Lycian League).

Junia Theodora

Theodora was a lobbyist for Lycian interests at Corinth in the mid-1st century AD and a Roman citizen.  The Lycian Federation issued two decrees in her honor and presented her with a crown of gold and her portrait was painted on a gold background and five minas of saffron. Myra, Patara, and Telmessus also honored her with decrees of gratitude for her assistance. According to the decrees, she did excellent work in gaining favor with the authorities for Lycian interests. She also provided hospitality for ambassadors and private citizens from the Lycian Assembly and from Lycian cities at her home. Upon her death, her will favored the Lycian people. Sextus Julius, her agent, and heir assisted her in her work.

Diogenes of Oenoanda

Diogenes of Oenoanda was a philosopher and prominent citizen who lived in the 2nd century AD and is famous for making one of the most extraordinary inscriptions of ancient times. He had found peace of mind in the teachings of Epicurus and to show the people in Oenoanda the road to happiness, he commissioned an inscription 80 meters long and more than 3 meters high which set out Epicurean doctrines* in about 25,000 words.  The huge inscription was placed in the agora and its large inscribed letters were painted - nobody could miss seeing them. This inscription is one of the most important sources for the philosophical school of Epicurus. Today it is broken but its fragments are being studied. Many of its blocks were used for building houses, paving streets, etc. – most probably during the early Christian era. They have been discovered one by one since the late 19th century.

This list is about Lycia alone and only covers the first and second centuries. It makes you wonder how many more benefactors, known and unknown, must have contributed to the well-being and even the survival of so many people at any time BC or AD. All those great men and women deserve a commemoration and a commendation like the one just granted to Opramoas of Rhodiapolis who became an honorary member of the Antalya Industrials and Businessmen Association (ANSIAD) nearly two thousand years after his death (see: Opramoas of Rhodiapolis, posthumously businessman of the year?). Paul Getty and Bill Gates did not come up with a new idea; they only put it in a new context.

* Epicurism assured people that there was nothing to fear from death, for the reason that there is no afterlife: death is the end of us because the only reality is physical reality.  It conveyed the ultimate conviction that individuals can live in serene happiness, fortified by the continual experience of modest pleasures.