The complex site of Taxila

Until now, I pictured Taxila as one big city, as it is in modern times. What threw me off was that ancient sources talked about the three ancient cities of Bhir, Sirkap, as well as Sirsukh instead of Taxila. Meanwhile, modern archaeology has established that Taxila is composed of 18 separate sites of great cultural value. This demanded a closer and more in-depth study of the matter. 

From the 6^th century BC onward, the city of Taxila was known by the Persian Achaemenid kings, who turned it into an important hub on their Royal Road from Persepolis to Central Asia. For Alexander, Taxila was the first major city he encountered on this way into India. It was also the residence of King Taxiles, who came to meet him while he was still in Sogdiana. He had promised to join his forces to those of Alexander, but he died before they could meet. True to his father’s word, Omphis (also called Mophis or Ambhi) received Alexander in Taxila (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind). 

We will recall that Omphis had provided supplies to Hephaistion and the Macedonians as they were bridging the Indus River. When both kings met outside the city, Omphis handed his fifty-six elephants over to Alexander, together with an impressive herd of livestock, including 3,000 bulls dressed up for sacrifices. 

The site of Bhir is actually the place where this meeting took place in 326 BC since Omphis’ palace stood on top of a mound that carried that name. This same location was later occupied by Chandragupta Maurya (see: Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?) and his grandson, Asoka. As the latter introduced Buddhism in the Gandhara region, the first Buddhist monastery was erected at this very spot at some time in the 3^rd century BC. By the 2^nd century AD, this construction was replaced by the Dharmarajika Stupa, the remains of which are still visible. 

With Alexander, Greek knowledge and science reached Taxila. Here, philosophers and the like met and developed science, mathematics and astronomy. 

Sirkap emerged at a later date. After Alexander’s conquest, the eastern part of his empire was ruled by the Seleucid kings till about 250 BC. By then, power was taken over by the self-proclaimed King Diodotus I of Bactria, who laid the foundations of what became the Greco-Bactrian Empire. These Bactrian Greeks advanced into the Gandhara region and erected their well-planned city of Sirkap as part of Taxila. For the next five hundred years, Greek remained the lingua franca and the influence of Greek art and beliefs lived on (see: Unique Hellenistic heritage in Pakistan). 

This link is confirmed by the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana (15-100 AD), who described Taxila as being rich with Greek-type of constructions. This happened in the 1^st century AD, and it is generally accepted that he was talking about Sirkap.

As a result of the heavy traffic on the Silk Road that connected Central Asia to China, business flourished while the population mingled with the Scythians, the Parthians, and later the Kushans. Besides silk and other precious goods, Buddhism also spread steadily in the wake of Buddhist monks travelling to China, Korea, and Japan. It was under the Kushan emperors that a new form of art blossomed, blending classical Greek expression with local art forms. This became known as the Gandhara Art, which produced the most remarkable statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas (see: Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art). 

One of the oldest Stupas is the so-called Round Stupa from the 1^st century AD. The largest sanctuary is the Apsidal Temple, measuring 70x40 meters with a square nave and several rooms used by the Buddhist monks. It also presented a building in an apsidal shape – hence its name. It may have been decorated by a Greek artist, but the earthquake of 30 AD destroyed most of the building. 

Of particular interest is the Double-Headed Eagle Stupa, which displayed pilasters of Greek design with Corinthian columns. It has a strange combination of a Greek temple and a Hindu shrine. The ensemble is crowned with a double-headed eagle as originally found in Babylon. The theory is that the idea spread to Scythia and was introduced to the Punjab by the Saka rulers. 

The large Dharmarajika Stupa already mentioned in Bhir was situated not far from Sirkap. It was built with the sole purpose of housing relics of the Buddha and was surrounded by several monastic buildings. 

The most recent city is Sirsukh, which was founded by the Kushans after 80 AD. King Kanishka had decided to abandon Sirkap and to build his own new city in a typical Central Asian style. The city was surrounded by a strong fortification wall that was almost five kilometers long and more than six meters thick. Its particularity was that the face of these walls was covered with diaper or diamond-shaped masonry. Until now, the city proper could not be investigated properly because today it is buried deep underneath the low, richly irrigated land. Sirsukh was completely destroyed by the Huns, who invaded the Punjab around 500 AD.

Heliodorus, Greek ambassador in India

It sounds rather strange to hear about an ambassador in antiquity. However, throughout his life, Alexander repeatedly met ambassadors from cities he would conquer or those who wanted to show their goodwill towards the conqueror. Yet, more often than not, they remain anonymous. One such exception, however, took place in India.

Chandragupta had entertained friendly relations with Seleucos, and the Greek Megasthenes had functioned as a capable ambassador. After Changragupta’s death, his son Bindusara came to the throne. This was six years after the death of Seleucos. Still, the friendly relations between the Seleucids and the Mauryan empire remained. Seleucos had been replaced by his son Antiochus, and Megasthenes was replaced by Deimachos as envoy to the Mauryan court (see: Transition between two great rulers, Chandragupta and Asoka).

Heliodorus, in the present case, is a Greek ambassador sent by the Indo-Greek King Antialcidas Nikephoros to the court of King Bhagabhadra, who ruled over north, east, and central India around 110 BC.

We have only scant information about the spreading of Hellenism in that part of the world, but it did happen. In the wake of Alexander and Seleucos, Hellenistic art, culture, and knowledge eventually took root in Central Asia, where the Bactrian kings proudly showed off their close ties.

In India, on the other hand, the influence of Hellenism was much slower since the Mauryan kingdom imposed itself shortly after Alexander’s short passage, eliminating all Greek influences in the area. (see: Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art).

But things changed in 185 BC with the fall of the Mauryas. The Graeco-Bactrian King Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, saw an opportunity to venture into India. He invaded the country by 180 BC, setting the foundations for the Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted till 10 AD. This was when the influence of Hellenism appeared in India, and those rulers' coins carried inscriptions in Greek and Indian languages. Furthermore, art in the Indo-Greek kingdom reached an unequaled level blending Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist elements harmoniously together.

In this context, it is unsurprising to meet a person like Heliodorus, who lived in Taxila then. The fact that he was sent by Antialcidas Nikephoros places our envoy at an unusually high level. This king ruled from ca. 115 to 95 BC over western India, although other sources prefer to date his rule to ca. 130 to 120 BC and include eastern Punjab in his domain (supported by coin findings). Antialcidas had coins struck representing Zeus and Balram, an Indian god.

Interestingly, Antialcidas may have been a relative of a Bactrian king since Heliocles II, as well as Amyntas, Diomedes, and Hermaeus, struck coins with similar features.

The Hellenistic dynasties in India had a very open mind in true tradition with Alexander. It may not surprise us to hear that Heliodorus converted to Hinduism and erected a pillar confirming his role and position. Our ambassador was logically inspired by Asoka, whose columns were taller and more refined. The inscription on Heliodorus’ pillar in ancient Brahmi reads as follows:

This Garuda-pillar of Vãsudeva, the god of gods, was constructed here by Heliodora, the Bhãgavata, son of Diya, of Takhkhasilã, the Greek ambassador who came from the Great King Amtalikita to King Kãsîputra Bhãgabhadra, the Savior, prospering in (his) fourteenth regnal year. (These?) three steps to immortality, when correctly followed, lead to heaven: control, generosity, and attention. (Translated by Richard Salomon)

Initially, the pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garuda, a divine eagle-like sun bird and the king of birds. How close can one get to the eagle who so often accompanied the images of Zeus? It is interesting to realize that Garuda was linked to Vishnu, the Hindu god who fights injustice and destroys evil and, as such, stood as the symbol of the king’s duty and power.

The “Khamb Baba” or Heliodorus Pillar still stands in Vidisha, some 60 kilometers northeast of Bhopal in India.

Excavations in the pillar area have also exposed the remains of a large temple from the 2^nd century BC, measuring 30mx30m with exceptionally thick walls of 2.40m. An earlier elliptical temple from the 4^th-3^rd century BC has been located underneath this level. Apparently, this strange construction was destroyed by a flood in 200 BC, i.e., before the erection of the Heliodorus pillar.

[Picture of the pillar: By Regents Park - Own work, CCBY-SA 3.0]
[Picture of the inscription from Wikimedia]

When pillars with unknown writing were discovered in India

It so happened that in 1616 an Englishman discovered a 13-meter-tall pillar with unknown writing among the ruins of ancient Delhi. The pillar itself was unusual since it glowed like brass but turned out to be made of highly polished sandstone instead. The inscription seemed related to Greek, and he assumed that the pillar had been erected by Alexander the Great after his victory over Porus – why not?

More such pillars were eventually sighted in northern India. We had to wait till 1830 when the British, much interested in India's economic exploitation, could translate their strange inscriptions for the first time. The texts were written in Prakrit and/or in combination with Aramaic and Greek, all referring to King Piyadasi, who became another name for King Asoka, who emerged as the first figure in Indian history to inform us about the country's forgotten past.

King Asoka was the grandson of Chandragupta and the third king of the Mauryan Empire (see: Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?) and ruled from 269 until 232 BC. He made headlines when it was discovered that his life and deeds ran parallel with the historical Buddha, about whom, until now, nearly nothing had been documented. British orientalists uncovered the true identities of both Asoka and Buddha thanks to these inscriptions – some 150 of them - etched by Asoka onto stone pillars and rock faces across India. The pillars had been placed strategically on trade routes and at the edge of cities.

The appearance of the Asokan pillars is still subject to discussion. These pillars were often crowned with one or more lions, an unknown element in Indian art. Some scholars claim that the lions were a Macedonian heritage left by Alexander the Great, inspired by the lion of Chaironeia. In contrast, others found many similarities with the Achaemenid columns, like those used at Persepolis.

Asoka ruled over the entire Indian subcontinent, except for a small kingdom on the east coast, Kalinga, which he captured in 260 BC. This extremely bloody war ended with the death of at least 200,000 men. From then onward (about 250 BC), he embraced Buddhism and governed his kingdom peacefully. At this time, he erected pillars to encourage people to live in harmony and give up violence. His name and deeds would have entirely disappeared from history had it not been for the records he left on pillars and rocks across the Mauryan Empire and beyond. This situation is not unlike that of the Egyptians, who lost their history till the hieroglyphs were deciphered by Champollion in the early 1800s.

The intriguing part is that pillars similar to those bearing Asoka's edicts existed in India before the king's time and were often moved and/or reused despite weighing as much as fifty tons. One known and documented example dates from the 14^th century, when two pillars were moved to Delhi from about 90 miles away. It is thought that one of these pillars was retrieved from Topra (an essential stop on the road from Pataliputra to the northwest) and could have belonged to the Twelve Altars built by Alexander on the banks of the Hyphasis River after the mutiny of these troops. This means this pillar was erected before Asoka's time, although it carries his Seventh Edict.

The pillars have become famous because of their inscriptions strung throughout the reign of Asoka. Other edicts have been found on major rocks and in several caves. Asoka etched his insights and principles of the Buddhist religion and their application by the people, the religious communities, and the state in general. The various rock and pillar edicts are geographically widespread and have been found in India and Pakistan, but also in neighboring Afghanistan, Nepal in the north, and Bangladesh in the east.

Seleucid Bactria and Mauryan Arachosia maintained diplomatic, commercial, and cultural exchanges. Arachosia, for instance, (southern Afghanistan and Pakistan) and its capital Kandahar (previously Alexandria Arachosia), came under the rule of the Mauryans after the Seleucids. Here, the bilingual inscriptions left by Asoka (including combinations of Greek, Aramaic, and Prakrit) confirm that educated Greeks had been willing to cooperate with him and that he promoted Buddhism. This is a significant result of Alexander's policy to settle his veterans and garrisons south of the Hindu Kush. It did not take those settlers too long to realize that if they resented ruling the natives, they would be displaced by those willing to do so. Alexander, indeed, had not subdued the entire area. Still, he had left the natives under local control, a policy that was extended by Seleucos and paid off when the Mauryan kings came to power.

Asoka's missionaries, apparently fluent in Greek, were dispatched throughout the Hellenistic world left by Alexander. We find the names of many rulers of those foreign countries etched in stone, for example.  

- Amtiyoko, who is nobody else than Antiochus II Theos of Syria, king of Greater Syria and, as such, also ruled over Bactria.

- Turamaye, which is the name used for Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, the son of Ptolemy I, who, after the death of Alexander the Great, became king of Egypt

- Amtikini, who refers to Antigonus II Gonatas, intermittently king of Macedonia

- Alikasudaro, meaning Alexander II, king of Epirus

- Maka, who is identified as Magas from faraway Cyrene 

The widely distributed edicts certainly were vital in the exchanges between East and West, and they provide a window into history that is otherwise unknown.

The edicts' primary purpose was to establish justice or dhamma, which includes much good and little evil, kindness, generosity, fruitfulness, purity, and, maybe most importantly, that "a dialog between different religions is good." A typical example is probably the rock inscription found at Shahbazgarhi (northwest Pakistan) listing several do's and don'ts: prohibition of needless killing and sacrificing of animals; provision of health facilities for humans and animals; digging of wells; prohibition of anti-social religious festivals; other aspects of good behavior including an exhortation to the various religions to engage in a dialog; and obedience to parents. For all intents and purposes, it would have been impossible in the long run to implement all this goodwill and these peace intentions without some kind of policing, meaning violence. Then as now, our freedom and peace do not come without a fight.

[Picture from Wikipedia]

A comprehensive list of Asoka's inscriptions with their complete translation can be found in "The Edicts of King Ashoka, an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika". This page reproduces all known edicts: 14 Rock Edicts, the Kalinga Rocks Edicts, and Minor Rock Edicts, and finally, the Seven Pillar Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts.

[Top Image: Ashokan Pillar at the ruined palace in Feroz Shah Kotla, shifted from Topra village in Yamunanagar district Haryana to Delhi, called the Delhi-Topra pillar.]

[Picture of Lion capital from History Discussion Net ]
[Picture of the Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum.]

Transition between two great rulers, Chandragupta and Asoka

Chandragupta’s death did not mean the end of the Mauryan Empire, which was to flourish for another four centuries. The most famous ruler was to be his grandson, Asoka, but we cannot ignore the binding role played by his son Bindusara.

[Maurya Empire at its maximum extent]

Bindusara came to the throne in 297 BC, six years after the death of Seleucos. Still, the friendly relations between the Seleucid and Mauryan empires were not interrupted. In 280 BC, Seleucos I was replaced by his son Antiochus I while Megasthenes, his ambassador at the Mauryan court, was replaced by Deimachos. Unfortunately, very few of the new envoy’s records have survived.

There are some speculations that Bindusara’s mother might have been Greek or even Macedonian because his father had made a marriage alliance with Seleucos. Yet there is no hard proof for this theory.

There is, however, an exciting anecdote worth to be mentioned about the relationship between Bindusara and Antiochus, whether it is true or not. Nothing being sweeter than figs, Bindusara apparently begged Antiochus to send him some figs and, while he was at it, some raisin wine as well; he added that he would like him to buy and send him a professor. The irony of the situation cannot have escaped Antiochus, who sent him the figs and the wine but told Bindusara that he could not oblige him with his last wish since it was unlawful for Greeks to sell a professor.

Otherwise, nothing much has been recorded about the reign of Bindusara. He seems to have followed his father’s footsteps and worked on consolidating his empire rather than expanding India further. It also transpires that Chanakya, the famous and highly competent minister of Chandragupta, continued to serve his son with the same dedication.

It is certain, however, that Bindusara maintained peace during his 25 years of kingship and managed to keep the empire together for his son, Asoka. He died in 272 BC at the age of 48.

All these events, it should be said, evolved at a time when the wars of succession for Alexander’s Empire finally settled down.

Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis

Arrian explicitly tells us that after the mutiny of his army at the Hyphasis River (modern Beas), Alexander ordered the construction of twelve altars to thank the gods for having led him this far as conqueror and to be a memorial for his own accomplishments. These altars must have been truly out of proportion, being “as high as the loftiest siege towers and even broader in proportion”. Each altar was dedicated to one of the Olympian gods: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysus.

[Ashoka  Pillar at Firoze Shah Kotla,Delhi]

King Chandragupta, who reigned from 321 to 297 BC and founded the first Indian Empire, has reportedly worshiped at these altars in memory of Alexander the Great. Plutarch tells us that in his time, nearly four centuries after Alexander, the local kings would still stop at these altars to sacrifice on them in the Greek fashion. Philostratus, in turn, mentions that Apollonius of Tyana (15-100 AD) visited India and saw the altars still intact and still could read the inscriptions. Pliny also knew of their existence, writing that “the Hyphasis was the limit of the marches of Alexander, who, however, crossed it, and dedicated altars on the further bank”. This statement is quite remarkable since this places the altars on the eastern bank of the Hyphasis, while Arrian seems to imply that they stood on the western bank.

The location of these altars triggers the discussion of whether Alexander and his men crossed the river or not. Was the Hyphasis River the exact cut-off point and were the altars erected at the exact point where Alexander’s troops mutinied? The early history in this part of the world is not too well-documented, yet we know that in 1616, the first pillars of Asoka were noticed by a traveling Englishman. He witnessed a superbly polished forty-foot-high monolithic pillar with an undeciphered inscription and assumed it was erected by nobody less than Alexander to celebrate his victory over Porus. Since then, we know that the inscription was made by King Asoka. 

New studies have indicated that the altars left by Alexander must have stood at the confluence of the Sutlej and the Beas (Hyphasis) rivers, taking into account that in ancient times their confluence was situated 40 miles below the present river junction. This point seems to coincide with the place where Feroz Shah, who was Sultan of Delhi in the 14^th century, found a pillar which he moved to his city. Now it seems that there are at least three such pillars standing in Delhi today. Pending a serious archaeological investigation, it is impossible to clarify the origin of these pillars. It seems, however, that based on Asoka’s own inscriptions, some of his pillars were not erected by him. This means that it is not impossible that Alexander the Great did, in fact, erect such grand pillars as part of the famous twelve altars. 

Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?

Chandragupta went down in history as King of India, founder of the Maurya Empire, and ruled from 321 to 297 BC; he was the first to unify India as we know it today. His Greek name was Sandracottus or Sandrokottos, as is reported by Megasthenes, the Greek envoy of Seleucos Nicator, Alexander’s successor in that part of the world.

Yet Chandragupta’s appearance in history started much earlier when, as a youngster, he spent time at Alexander’s camp either as a fugitive or as an exile. He was born in 340 BC, making him only sixteen years younger than Alexander. How and under what circumstances both men met is told in different ways. Some say that after his victory over Porus, Alexander had been approached by Chandragupta to help him overthrow the neighboring Nanda Kingdom, which extended from Punjab to the Bay of Bengal and whose capital was Pataliputra (the Greek Palimbothra), modern Patna. Another theory presented by Plutarch is that Chandragupta, being of lower birth on his mother’s side, sneered at the base origin of his King Xandrames of the Nanda Empire, whose father was a barber. The pot calls the kettle black! Dad had murdered his king to marry the queen with whom he was romantically involved, although Curtius claims that the queen killed her husband with her own hands. Well, if his father did indeed murder the king, this led evidently to the exile of Chandragupta. Whatever version is true, Chandragupta ended up spending time at Alexander’s camp. He must have been 14 or 15 years old at the time, which means that he was about the same age as Philip, Alexander’s father, when he was taken to Thebes as a hostage – in other words, the right age to be influenced to accomplish great deeds (and Chandragupta did not need much conviction, it seems!)   

The fact is that the last king of the Nanda Dynasty was Mahapadma Nanda, and that the collapse of his empire, just east of Porus’ realm, was imminent. It seems that Alexander was informed of this situation while he was at the Hyphasis River (modern Beas). The prospect of including this important and powerful country in his conquest may have been the true reason for Alexander’s decision to march further east and not his dream to reach the end of the world, as is generally assumed. The mutiny of his army changed the course of history. This is, however, where Chandragupta takes over. As soon as Alexander left India, Chandragupta managed to unify the northern tribes and assemble a formidable force, and since Alexander had not overthrown the Nanda Dynasty, he decided to do it himself.

When Alexander died in 323 BC, Chandragupta seized his chance and set out to throw the Macedonians out and successfully conquer Punjab. The Macedonian successors were too busy and too late to realize that they had neglected India in their cutting up of Alexander’s empire at the Partition of Babylon. Besides, Antigonus Monophthalmus, as a self-proclaimed master of Asia, showed little interest in the eastern part of his empire and left it pretty much to rule itself.

Chandragupta needs no further encouragement to dethrone the Nanda king, and he exterminates every member of his family. As a result, he became the first king of the Mauryan Empire in 322 BC. He inherits Nanda’s huge army, which, increased with his own forces, brings it to a total force of 30,000 cavalry, 600,000 infantry, 9,000 elephants, and a multitude of chariots. By now, there is nothing to stop Chandragupta from further expansion, which is favored by the conference of Triparadeisus held by the Diadochi in 321 BC, where they once again failed to make clear provisions for the Indian satrapies. By 317 BC, Chandragupta effectively controlled all of northern India, reaching from the Khyber Pass to the Ganges delta, and he then concentrated on further expansion, becoming eventually the absolute ruler of this new empire that reached from the Himalayas down to the Arabian Sea.

In 309 BC, Seleucos entered a pitched battle with the 70-year-old Antigonus Monophthalmus, who was defeated and withdrew to Syria, leaving Seleucos as the sole ruler of Bactria, Sogdia, and India. Four years later, Seleucos attempts to reconquer the territories west of the Indus, which Alexander had occupied some twenty years before, but he obviously lacks the time and the resources. The best he could do was to reach a diplomatic agreement with Chandragupta, along the same line as the settlement he had previously reached with the Sogdians. This happened after both parties faced each other in a fierce battle in 304 BC, from which Chandragupta emerged victoriously, and where Seleucos ceded the provinces of Arachosia, Gandaris, Paropamisadae, as well as parts of Areia and Gedrosia in exchange for 500 war elephants and their handlers; a marriage alliance completed the compromise.

This settlement of 303 BC could well be inspired by Alexander’s earlier agreement with Porus, and since Antiochus the Great renewed this very treaty a century later, it indicates that it was the most practical solution for all parties involved. It is important to note that the treaty included a guarantee of connubial rights, meaning that the rights of those children born from mixed marriages of Greeks with natives were protected – a small detail but an important one.

None of Alexander’s easternmost territories were ever recovered by any of the Diadochi, and after Seleucos attempted to that end, nobody ever contemplated it again, and all Seleucid kings from Seleucos Nicator I to Antiochus III simply accepted India as semi-independent. This may, in fact, be exactly what Alexander had in mind when he left Porus to rule his own territory and more. Besides, we should not forget the role played by the substantial number of Greek colonists who had to live alongside the native population. The growth of Mauryan power did not mean the Greek settlers were exterminated or expelled. It was a matter of simple judgment; they either adapted to local conditions and native rules to become independent from Macedonia and part of India, or they saw themselves purged.

At this point, the Hindu Kush Mountains, the Greek Paropanisos, became Chandragupta’s western frontier, an inglorious end to Alexander’s eastern conquest, it may seem. Yet all those who ever fought at Alexander’s side had learned his lessons very thoroughly. Seleucos was one of his outstanding pupils, and immediately after the conclusion of the treaty, he sent an envoy to the court of Chandragupta. This was Megasthenes, who spent many years at Palimbothra, the capital of the Mauryan Empire. We owe him some excellent reports about the geography, products, and institutions of India, for he was a unique source of information from that part of the world. His work on Chandragupta’s civil and military administration is considered to be accurate and trustworthy, although only fragments have survived. Strabo interestingly tells us that Megasthenes said we should not believe the old stories about the Indians simply because they never invaded any country outside India, and no foreign army ever invaded India till Alexander. Megasthenes must have been a fine diplomat, for he not only had to comply with Chandragupta but also with his capable advisor and minister Kautilya (also named Chanakya), who wrote down the very first laws and the constitution of the Maurya Empire, which were strictly enforced. This handbook for effectively running an empire, the Arthashastra, contained extensive information about diplomacy and military strategy, but also careful recommendations on taxation, irrigation, coinage, agriculture and mining, manufacturing and trade, and many other useful topics.

It was this Kautilya who was responsible for the administration of Palimbothra, which was headed by a Municipal Commission divided into six boards or committees of five members each, entrusted with specific duties. The administration of the distant provinces was, in turn, placed in the hands of viceroys, usually members of the royal family. The matter of land irrigation was extremely important in India, and Chandragupta made sure that everyone got their fair share, and a special department was created to oversee the land measurements and the sluice regulations. The roads were well-maintained, and milestones were set up at regular intervals of ten stadia; a royal road is said to connect the northwest frontier with Pataliputra, 10,000 stadia long! The general honesty of the people was high on the list of duties of every citizen, and Megasthenes tells us that crimes like theft or giving false evidence were severely punished. Arrian already reported that elephants, horses, and camels were only used by the king, the wealthy, and those of the king’s entourage. All in all, an organization that is very different from that known in the West or even in Persia.

At the summit of his power, Chandragupta had eliminated all his opponents and ruled over an empire larger than what British India ever would be! He owed his power and empire to his enormous army, which was organized and equipped in such a way that it became extremely efficient. Not unlike Alexander’s forces, it was a standing army where each man was on a regular payroll, and the government provided horses, arms, and other equipment. From his Nanda campaign, Chandragupta acquired 8,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 elephants. Just imagine what Alexander would have done with such an army force that exceeded his own by far. He definitely could have marched to the end of the earth!

The reality was that the impressive number of troops from the Nanda Dynasty increased Chandragupta’s own troops, totaling his infantry to 600,000, some 30,000 cavalry, and a staggering 9,000 elephants, besides an unspecified number of chariots. His men were very well-equipped, and sources tell us that each cavalry carried two lances (saunia) and a small shield (buckler). All infantrymen were equipped with a broadsword and would additionally have javelins or a bow and arrows. Each elephant, beside its mahout, would typically be manned by three archers, implying a force of 36,000 men. Each chariot, as we have seen during Alexander’s fight at the Hydaspes (see: The Battle of the Hydaspes and the Genius of Alexander), would accommodate two soldiers next to the driver, requiring 24,000 men. If we add up all these numbers, Chandragupta’s army would have reached at least 690,000 men, and that is without counting its followers in the baggage train.

It is obvious that no battle could or would be fought involving the whole of this huge army, but portions of it must have been distributed all over the many provinces of Chandragupta’s newly conquered empire.

Despite such a great achievement, or maybe just because of it, Chandragupta decided to spend his final years in religious devotion as a follower of Jainism. In 298 BC, after a reign of 24 years, he left his throne to his son Bindusara. Chandragupta died shortly afterward as he starved himself to death; his empire, however, would live on for more than a century.

History or legend has it that Chandragupta liked to tell his Greek guests, “I watched Alexander when I was still a young man. Alexander had been within an ace of seizing India because its king was so hated and despised, both for his character and his low birth”. Yes, Alexander might have strolled through Palimbothra’s gardens, admiring its fish ponds, which were not far from the silt-brown fields along the Ganges River. Alexander was only three months away from taking all of India, but his soldiers refused to follow him, not realizing how much this would have meant to their king and eventually to their own conquests.

[Picture credits and links: 
Young Chandragupta from JatLand.org
Map of Nanda Empire
Head of Seleucos from Pompeii
Statue of Chandragupta from Wikimedia
Map of Maurya Empire
Place where Chandragupta died]

Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art

When, in the frame of Europalia India, the exhibition The Body in Indian Art came to Brussels, I had the opportunity to go hunting for Greek elements in the Indian statues and friezes. The oldest sculptures, dating from the 2^nd century BC and the most recent with still Hellenistic traits, were from the fourth century AD, i.e., more or less with the latest influences in the West under the Romans. The attentive visitor will easily recognize Hellenistic influence in the facial expression, the positioning of the body resting on one leg, the execution of the robes, the border elements with palmettos and four-leaved flowers familiar from caissons in Greek buildings, or even in the active Cupid or Amor figures on narrow decorative stone bands. This collection was a unique opportunity since it seldom travels outside India.

After the spread of Hellenism, Buddha is depicted visually wearing a light toga-like himation, and the Bodhisattvas are merely bare-chested Indian princes. The surrounding buildings are set up in Greek style with remote Ionian and Indian-style Corinthian capitals. The figures are a mixture of Greek and Indian elements.

The real aficionados will find many magnificent examples of this unique style at the Musée Guimet in Paris, France. This museum has been entirely revamped and hosts an amazing collection of Asian Art. In the traces of Alexander the Great, Treasures from Afghanistan/Pakistan (roughly ancient Bactria and Sogdiana) and India have been gathered to be exhibited in an absolutely breathtaking collection. Besides major artifacts from Hada and Begram in today's Afghanistan, there are beautiful examples of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas among lovely genies from Gandhara worth the visit.

Cyrus the Great first extended the Persian Empire eastwards to include the areas around the Indus River. Gandhara in the Peshawar Valley of northern Pakistan fell under Achaemenid rule and was formally incorporated as the seventh satrapy, that of the Upper Indus.

When Alexander the Great arrived in Taxila in 326 BC, Buddhism had yet to appear in that region. Arrian, among others, mentions, however, that the king met members of the Indian sect of Wise Men who walk around naked. It is common knowledge that Alexander always kept an open mind to other religions, and these wise men must have intrigued him. One of them, going by the Greek name of Calanus, joined Alexander on his way back west, and we can only guess their topics of conversation. Calanus had many pupils and friends inside Alexander's circle. The only one mentioned by name is Lysimachos, who received the horse that the dying man was supposed to ride on his way to the sacrificial pyre arranged at his request by Alexander in person. 

The fact remains that the first statues representing Buddha are part of Alexander's legacy. Hellenism contributed to spreading art, culture, and knowledge and took root in Central Asia, where the Bactrian kings proudly showed off their close ties. In India, on the other hand, this influence was much slower, if only because the Mauryan kingdom imposed itself shortly after Alexander's passage, eliminating the Macedonians on their way.

It may not surprise that the first images of Buddha were created in Central Asia during the rule of Graeco-Bactrian kings. Before the spread of Hellenism, no artist was allowed to show Buddha in human form, and symbols such as a footprint, a wheel, a tree, a stupa, or some Sanskrit characters were used instead. By 180 BC, the Graeco-Bactrian King Demetrius invaded India, leading to the Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted until 10 AD. This was when the Gandharan Buddha was sculpted with a straight nose and brow, classical lips, and wavy hair – strong idealized and sensuous influences of Hellenism. A striking element was the introduction of the "diaphanous," a toga-like robe that Buddha wears instead of the expected loincloth. Yet the heavy eyelids, the elongated earlobes, and the oval-shaped faces are still very much Indian. In short, this art form became a potent melting pot of Eastern and Western traditions.

Chandragupta of the Mauryan Empire took advantage of the confusion following the death of Alexander to take possession of the former Macedonian satrapies of Parapamisade (Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandahar), and Gedrosia after fighting Seleucos, Alexander's successor in the east (305-303 BC). Only when King Demetrius defeated the Mauryas did the influence of Hellenism appear in India.

It is clear that Alexander's legacy through Hellenism was felt for many centuries, directly or indirectly, and visiting an exhibition even distantly related to the great conqueror is always gratifying.