The Bharhut Yavana

Yavana means as much as Greek or could even refer to a foreigner in ancient Indian literature. The word may have a Persian origin and traveled with Cyrus the Great to the Northwestern provinces of India. After the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great, the name Yavana was used more specifically for the Indo-Greeks after approximately 175 BC. 

The Bharhut Yavana refers to the relief of a Greek warrior on a Vedika pillar, discovered near the Stupa of Bharhut in Central India. His role was to guard the entrance to a temple. It is made of reddish-brown sandstone and dated to c. 100-80 BC.

The characteristics of the Yavana warrior are his short curly hair and hairband (the Indians wore a turban), his tunic, and boots. His hair band is well-known from coins minted for King Menander. The sheath of his broadsword is decorated with symbols of Buddhism, such as a srivasta, also known in Hinduism, and a nandipada, the symbol of a bull’s hoof. The inscription at the top of the panel is in Brahmi script and says "Pillar-gift of the lay brother Mahila." Who this Mahila is remains a mystery.

[Picture from Wikipedia]

Some sources claim that the Bharhut warrior could represent King Menander of Bactria, who expanded his kingdom to the Punjab as far as Pataliputra. As a great Indo-Greek King, he ruled from 155 to 130 BC.

The Bharhut Yavana is not unique. The Stupa of Sanchi, commissioned by Asoka the Great in the 3^rd century BC, displays another 18 of these Greek worshipers. They wear very recognizable Greek tunics, capes, and sandals. Also, they play Greek musical instruments like the aulos (double flute) and the carnyx (a Roman brass horn shaped as a capital G). Here too, the men have short curly hair and many wear a hairband as mentioned above. 

[Picture from Wikipedia]

Even in his wildest dreams, Alexander could not have expected this evolution and presence of Greek art for centuries after his death at the other end of his empire.

The complex site of Taxila

Until now, I pictured Taxila as one big city, as it is in modern times. What threw me off was that ancient sources talked about the three ancient cities of Bhir, Sirkap, as well as Sirsukh instead of Taxila. Meanwhile, modern archaeology has established that Taxila is composed of 18 separate sites of great cultural value. This demanded a closer and more in-depth study of the matter. 

From the 6^th century BC onward, the city of Taxila was known by the Persian Achaemenid kings, who turned it into an important hub on their Royal Road from Persepolis to Central Asia. For Alexander, Taxila was the first major city he encountered on this way into India. It was also the residence of King Taxiles, who came to meet him while he was still in Sogdiana. He had promised to join his forces to those of Alexander, but he died before they could meet. True to his father’s word, Omphis (also called Mophis or Ambhi) received Alexander in Taxila (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind). 

We will recall that Omphis had provided supplies to Hephaistion and the Macedonians as they were bridging the Indus River. When both kings met outside the city, Omphis handed his fifty-six elephants over to Alexander, together with an impressive herd of livestock, including 3,000 bulls dressed up for sacrifices. 

The site of Bhir is actually the place where this meeting took place in 326 BC since Omphis’ palace stood on top of a mound that carried that name. This same location was later occupied by Chandragupta Maurya (see: Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?) and his grandson, Asoka. As the latter introduced Buddhism in the Gandhara region, the first Buddhist monastery was erected at this very spot at some time in the 3^rd century BC. By the 2^nd century AD, this construction was replaced by the Dharmarajika Stupa, the remains of which are still visible. 

With Alexander, Greek knowledge and science reached Taxila. Here, philosophers and the like met and developed science, mathematics and astronomy. 

Sirkap emerged at a later date. After Alexander’s conquest, the eastern part of his empire was ruled by the Seleucid kings till about 250 BC. By then, power was taken over by the self-proclaimed King Diodotus I of Bactria, who laid the foundations of what became the Greco-Bactrian Empire. These Bactrian Greeks advanced into the Gandhara region and erected their well-planned city of Sirkap as part of Taxila. For the next five hundred years, Greek remained the lingua franca and the influence of Greek art and beliefs lived on (see: Unique Hellenistic heritage in Pakistan). 

This link is confirmed by the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana (15-100 AD), who described Taxila as being rich with Greek-type of constructions. This happened in the 1^st century AD, and it is generally accepted that he was talking about Sirkap.

As a result of the heavy traffic on the Silk Road that connected Central Asia to China, business flourished while the population mingled with the Scythians, the Parthians, and later the Kushans. Besides silk and other precious goods, Buddhism also spread steadily in the wake of Buddhist monks travelling to China, Korea, and Japan. It was under the Kushan emperors that a new form of art blossomed, blending classical Greek expression with local art forms. This became known as the Gandhara Art, which produced the most remarkable statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas (see: Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art). 

One of the oldest Stupas is the so-called Round Stupa from the 1^st century AD. The largest sanctuary is the Apsidal Temple, measuring 70x40 meters with a square nave and several rooms used by the Buddhist monks. It also presented a building in an apsidal shape – hence its name. It may have been decorated by a Greek artist, but the earthquake of 30 AD destroyed most of the building. 

Of particular interest is the Double-Headed Eagle Stupa, which displayed pilasters of Greek design with Corinthian columns. It has a strange combination of a Greek temple and a Hindu shrine. The ensemble is crowned with a double-headed eagle as originally found in Babylon. The theory is that the idea spread to Scythia and was introduced to the Punjab by the Saka rulers. 

The large Dharmarajika Stupa already mentioned in Bhir was situated not far from Sirkap. It was built with the sole purpose of housing relics of the Buddha and was surrounded by several monastic buildings. 

The most recent city is Sirsukh, which was founded by the Kushans after 80 AD. King Kanishka had decided to abandon Sirkap and to build his own new city in a typical Central Asian style. The city was surrounded by a strong fortification wall that was almost five kilometers long and more than six meters thick. Its particularity was that the face of these walls was covered with diaper or diamond-shaped masonry. Until now, the city proper could not be investigated properly because today it is buried deep underneath the low, richly irrigated land. Sirsukh was completely destroyed by the Huns, who invaded the Punjab around 500 AD.

Heliodorus, Greek ambassador in India

It sounds rather strange to hear about an ambassador in antiquity. However, throughout his life, Alexander repeatedly met ambassadors from cities he would conquer or those who wanted to show their goodwill towards the conqueror. Yet, more often than not, they remain anonymous. One such exception, however, took place in India.

Chandragupta had entertained friendly relations with Seleucos, and the Greek Megasthenes had functioned as a capable ambassador. After Changragupta’s death, his son Bindusara came to the throne. This was six years after the death of Seleucos. Still, the friendly relations between the Seleucids and the Mauryan empire remained. Seleucos had been replaced by his son Antiochus, and Megasthenes was replaced by Deimachos as envoy to the Mauryan court (see: Transition between two great rulers, Chandragupta and Asoka).

Heliodorus, in the present case, is a Greek ambassador sent by the Indo-Greek King Antialcidas Nikephoros to the court of King Bhagabhadra, who ruled over north, east, and central India around 110 BC.

We have only scant information about the spreading of Hellenism in that part of the world, but it did happen. In the wake of Alexander and Seleucos, Hellenistic art, culture, and knowledge eventually took root in Central Asia, where the Bactrian kings proudly showed off their close ties.

In India, on the other hand, the influence of Hellenism was much slower since the Mauryan kingdom imposed itself shortly after Alexander’s short passage, eliminating all Greek influences in the area. (see: Indo-Greek art or the influence of Hellenism on Buddhist art).

But things changed in 185 BC with the fall of the Mauryas. The Graeco-Bactrian King Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, saw an opportunity to venture into India. He invaded the country by 180 BC, setting the foundations for the Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted till 10 AD. This was when the influence of Hellenism appeared in India, and those rulers' coins carried inscriptions in Greek and Indian languages. Furthermore, art in the Indo-Greek kingdom reached an unequaled level blending Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist elements harmoniously together.

In this context, it is unsurprising to meet a person like Heliodorus, who lived in Taxila then. The fact that he was sent by Antialcidas Nikephoros places our envoy at an unusually high level. This king ruled from ca. 115 to 95 BC over western India, although other sources prefer to date his rule to ca. 130 to 120 BC and include eastern Punjab in his domain (supported by coin findings). Antialcidas had coins struck representing Zeus and Balram, an Indian god.

Interestingly, Antialcidas may have been a relative of a Bactrian king since Heliocles II, as well as Amyntas, Diomedes, and Hermaeus, struck coins with similar features.

The Hellenistic dynasties in India had a very open mind in true tradition with Alexander. It may not surprise us to hear that Heliodorus converted to Hinduism and erected a pillar confirming his role and position. Our ambassador was logically inspired by Asoka, whose columns were taller and more refined. The inscription on Heliodorus’ pillar in ancient Brahmi reads as follows:

This Garuda-pillar of Vãsudeva, the god of gods, was constructed here by Heliodora, the Bhãgavata, son of Diya, of Takhkhasilã, the Greek ambassador who came from the Great King Amtalikita to King Kãsîputra Bhãgabhadra, the Savior, prospering in (his) fourteenth regnal year. (These?) three steps to immortality, when correctly followed, lead to heaven: control, generosity, and attention. (Translated by Richard Salomon)

Initially, the pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garuda, a divine eagle-like sun bird and the king of birds. How close can one get to the eagle who so often accompanied the images of Zeus? It is interesting to realize that Garuda was linked to Vishnu, the Hindu god who fights injustice and destroys evil and, as such, stood as the symbol of the king’s duty and power.

The “Khamb Baba” or Heliodorus Pillar still stands in Vidisha, some 60 kilometers northeast of Bhopal in India.

Excavations in the pillar area have also exposed the remains of a large temple from the 2^nd century BC, measuring 30mx30m with exceptionally thick walls of 2.40m. An earlier elliptical temple from the 4^th-3^rd century BC has been located underneath this level. Apparently, this strange construction was destroyed by a flood in 200 BC, i.e., before the erection of the Heliodorus pillar.

[Picture of the pillar: By Regents Park - Own work, CCBY-SA 3.0]
[Picture of the inscription from Wikimedia]

About Indo-Bactrian writing

How unfortunate that we can take in only so much when visiting places or exhibitions. I often regret that I did not look further into certain details, and one of these missed elements is the Indo-Bactrian script. I have seen plenty of such documents at exhibitions about the Silk Road and at the Musée Guimet in Paris, but I merely glanced at them without any mental connection to their writing or tenure. Well, I should have because, after all, the Bactrian Empire is a heritage of Alexander’s conquest of Central Asia.

Time to catch up!

The other day, I came across an article about the Kharosthi script, another name for the Indo-Bactrian writing that originated in the aftermath of Alexander during the 4^th and 3^rd century BC in what is now Pakistan. This Kharosthi was a form of Prakrit, an Indo-Aryan language that was used two generations after Alexander by King Asoka for his pillar inscriptions (see: When pillars with unknown writing were discovered in India).

[Kharosthi script on a wooden plate, National Museum of New Delhi]

For good order, we have to go back to the Achaemenid kings who, in the early 5^th century BC, introduced Aramaic, their official language, to their newly conquered territories in Gandhara and along the Indus. They wrote their Aramaic using a North Semitic script which was customized to suit the phonetics of Gandhara, a Prakrit dialect, and this resulted in the creation of Kharosthi. Kharosthi writing was also used for most inscriptions in northwestern India between 220 BC and 200 AD. At the very heart of Central Asia, Sogdiana and Bactria generally used the Kharosthi inscriptions in the days of the Kushan Empire (1^st-4^th century AD). Because of the flourishing trading along the Silk Road, Kharosthi writing is found all over Central Asia, particularly during Shanshan rule (starting during the 1^st century BC), while further examples have been found more to the east in China during the reign of Emperor Ling (168-189 AD).

Kharosthi was not only used for inscriptions or written documents but also stamped on coins during the short-lived Indo-Greek Kingdom when bilingual texts were frequent. A few rare examples showed Kharosthi on pottery found as far as Bengal.

Eventually, and due to the increased influence of the Brahmi script, Kharosthi gradually was confined to specific regions till, by the 4^th century AD, it disappeared entirely.

Laodicea, great works in progress!

Only recently, Laodicea was in the news because a tablet explaining the laws for the city’s water management dating from Roman times was discovered (see: Water laws, still unchanged after nearly two thousand years).

[Picture from Hurriyet Daily News]

It appears that excavations have intensified and that a sacred agora, the only such example in the world, has been exposed and is undergoing serious restoration. This agora, the largest sacred area in Anatolia because of the adjacent temple, collapsed after the severe earthquake of 494 AD and was covered under a layer of up to seven meters of rubble. It is leaning against a 100-meter-long and eleven-meter-high back wall that is covered with paintings. Over its entire length ran a Stoa and the columns – some 34 of them - that once held the roof are now being reassembled.

At the same time, work has progressed in reviving the Hellenistic theater planning to make it accessible again in two years time. The lower tiers of seats have been preserved but the upper tiers survived only partially. Most of the restoration apparently seems to be needed around the skene, which in the 5^th century became part of the city wall.

Archaeologists are still sorting through the reliefs, sculptures, vessels, and jewels found on the site, generally transferred to the local museum.

Laodicea, which is located only ten kilometers from Hierapolis (next to Pamukkale) was founded by Antiochus II Theos of Syria and named after his first wife, Laodike. This Seleucid king is the one who is mentioned on one of the Ashoka pillars as Amtiyoko, king of Greater Syria and Bactria (see: When pillars with unknown writing were discovered in India).

In 188 BC, the city was ruled by the kings of Pergamon until it fell to the Romans in 133 BC. At this point and because of its strategic position, Laodicea flourished thanks to the intensive trade in black wool.

[Picture from Wikipedia]

As mentioned before, there is far more to discover at Laodicea besides the Agora and the Theatre. The list contains buildings like baths, several temples, another theater, and a Bouleuterion.  The Stadion is in good condition and still contains the original seating on both sides, taking advantage of the narrow valley in which it has been built. At its western end are the remains of an underground passage used by chariots and horses to access the arena. Many streets were lined with columns and pedestals and there are even traces of a city gate, the Ephesos Gate. North of the city, closer to the adjacent Lycos River, the necropolis has been discovered with many sarcophagi whose lids have been removed in antiquity by tomb raiders.

Quite exceptional, however, is the aqueduct of Laodicea since it is very similar to the one found at Aspendos (see: Aspendos, the unfaithful). In both cases, an inverted siphon carried the water from the summit of a low hill down the valley all the way up to the header tank at the edge of the city. This certainly is great news, as until now Aspendos claimed the monopoly for this kind of Roman architecture. 

When pillars with unknown writing were discovered in India

It so happened that in 1616 an Englishman discovered a 13-meter-tall pillar with unknown writing among the ruins of ancient Delhi. The pillar itself was unusual since it glowed like brass but turned out to be made of highly polished sandstone instead. The inscription seemed related to Greek, and he assumed that the pillar had been erected by Alexander the Great after his victory over Porus – why not?

More such pillars were eventually sighted in northern India. We had to wait till 1830 when the British, much interested in India's economic exploitation, could translate their strange inscriptions for the first time. The texts were written in Prakrit and/or in combination with Aramaic and Greek, all referring to King Piyadasi, who became another name for King Asoka, who emerged as the first figure in Indian history to inform us about the country's forgotten past.

King Asoka was the grandson of Chandragupta and the third king of the Mauryan Empire (see: Was Chandragupta inspired by Alexander?) and ruled from 269 until 232 BC. He made headlines when it was discovered that his life and deeds ran parallel with the historical Buddha, about whom, until now, nearly nothing had been documented. British orientalists uncovered the true identities of both Asoka and Buddha thanks to these inscriptions – some 150 of them - etched by Asoka onto stone pillars and rock faces across India. The pillars had been placed strategically on trade routes and at the edge of cities.

The appearance of the Asokan pillars is still subject to discussion. These pillars were often crowned with one or more lions, an unknown element in Indian art. Some scholars claim that the lions were a Macedonian heritage left by Alexander the Great, inspired by the lion of Chaironeia. In contrast, others found many similarities with the Achaemenid columns, like those used at Persepolis.

Asoka ruled over the entire Indian subcontinent, except for a small kingdom on the east coast, Kalinga, which he captured in 260 BC. This extremely bloody war ended with the death of at least 200,000 men. From then onward (about 250 BC), he embraced Buddhism and governed his kingdom peacefully. At this time, he erected pillars to encourage people to live in harmony and give up violence. His name and deeds would have entirely disappeared from history had it not been for the records he left on pillars and rocks across the Mauryan Empire and beyond. This situation is not unlike that of the Egyptians, who lost their history till the hieroglyphs were deciphered by Champollion in the early 1800s.

The intriguing part is that pillars similar to those bearing Asoka's edicts existed in India before the king's time and were often moved and/or reused despite weighing as much as fifty tons. One known and documented example dates from the 14^th century, when two pillars were moved to Delhi from about 90 miles away. It is thought that one of these pillars was retrieved from Topra (an essential stop on the road from Pataliputra to the northwest) and could have belonged to the Twelve Altars built by Alexander on the banks of the Hyphasis River after the mutiny of these troops. This means this pillar was erected before Asoka's time, although it carries his Seventh Edict.

The pillars have become famous because of their inscriptions strung throughout the reign of Asoka. Other edicts have been found on major rocks and in several caves. Asoka etched his insights and principles of the Buddhist religion and their application by the people, the religious communities, and the state in general. The various rock and pillar edicts are geographically widespread and have been found in India and Pakistan, but also in neighboring Afghanistan, Nepal in the north, and Bangladesh in the east.

Seleucid Bactria and Mauryan Arachosia maintained diplomatic, commercial, and cultural exchanges. Arachosia, for instance, (southern Afghanistan and Pakistan) and its capital Kandahar (previously Alexandria Arachosia), came under the rule of the Mauryans after the Seleucids. Here, the bilingual inscriptions left by Asoka (including combinations of Greek, Aramaic, and Prakrit) confirm that educated Greeks had been willing to cooperate with him and that he promoted Buddhism. This is a significant result of Alexander's policy to settle his veterans and garrisons south of the Hindu Kush. It did not take those settlers too long to realize that if they resented ruling the natives, they would be displaced by those willing to do so. Alexander, indeed, had not subdued the entire area. Still, he had left the natives under local control, a policy that was extended by Seleucos and paid off when the Mauryan kings came to power.

Asoka's missionaries, apparently fluent in Greek, were dispatched throughout the Hellenistic world left by Alexander. We find the names of many rulers of those foreign countries etched in stone, for example.  

- Amtiyoko, who is nobody else than Antiochus II Theos of Syria, king of Greater Syria and, as such, also ruled over Bactria.

- Turamaye, which is the name used for Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, the son of Ptolemy I, who, after the death of Alexander the Great, became king of Egypt

- Amtikini, who refers to Antigonus II Gonatas, intermittently king of Macedonia

- Alikasudaro, meaning Alexander II, king of Epirus

- Maka, who is identified as Magas from faraway Cyrene 

The widely distributed edicts certainly were vital in the exchanges between East and West, and they provide a window into history that is otherwise unknown.

The edicts' primary purpose was to establish justice or dhamma, which includes much good and little evil, kindness, generosity, fruitfulness, purity, and, maybe most importantly, that "a dialog between different religions is good." A typical example is probably the rock inscription found at Shahbazgarhi (northwest Pakistan) listing several do's and don'ts: prohibition of needless killing and sacrificing of animals; provision of health facilities for humans and animals; digging of wells; prohibition of anti-social religious festivals; other aspects of good behavior including an exhortation to the various religions to engage in a dialog; and obedience to parents. For all intents and purposes, it would have been impossible in the long run to implement all this goodwill and these peace intentions without some kind of policing, meaning violence. Then as now, our freedom and peace do not come without a fight.

[Picture from Wikipedia]

A comprehensive list of Asoka's inscriptions with their complete translation can be found in "The Edicts of King Ashoka, an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika". This page reproduces all known edicts: 14 Rock Edicts, the Kalinga Rocks Edicts, and Minor Rock Edicts, and finally, the Seven Pillar Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts.

[Top Image: Ashokan Pillar at the ruined palace in Feroz Shah Kotla, shifted from Topra village in Yamunanagar district Haryana to Delhi, called the Delhi-Topra pillar.]

[Picture of Lion capital from History Discussion Net ]
[Picture of the Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum.]

Transition between two great rulers, Chandragupta and Asoka

Chandragupta’s death did not mean the end of the Mauryan Empire, which was to flourish for another four centuries. The most famous ruler was to be his grandson, Asoka, but we cannot ignore the binding role played by his son Bindusara.

[Maurya Empire at its maximum extent]

Bindusara came to the throne in 297 BC, six years after the death of Seleucos. Still, the friendly relations between the Seleucid and Mauryan empires were not interrupted. In 280 BC, Seleucos I was replaced by his son Antiochus I while Megasthenes, his ambassador at the Mauryan court, was replaced by Deimachos. Unfortunately, very few of the new envoy’s records have survived.

There are some speculations that Bindusara’s mother might have been Greek or even Macedonian because his father had made a marriage alliance with Seleucos. Yet there is no hard proof for this theory.

There is, however, an exciting anecdote worth to be mentioned about the relationship between Bindusara and Antiochus, whether it is true or not. Nothing being sweeter than figs, Bindusara apparently begged Antiochus to send him some figs and, while he was at it, some raisin wine as well; he added that he would like him to buy and send him a professor. The irony of the situation cannot have escaped Antiochus, who sent him the figs and the wine but told Bindusara that he could not oblige him with his last wish since it was unlawful for Greeks to sell a professor.

Otherwise, nothing much has been recorded about the reign of Bindusara. He seems to have followed his father’s footsteps and worked on consolidating his empire rather than expanding India further. It also transpires that Chanakya, the famous and highly competent minister of Chandragupta, continued to serve his son with the same dedication.

It is certain, however, that Bindusara maintained peace during his 25 years of kingship and managed to keep the empire together for his son, Asoka. He died in 272 BC at the age of 48.

All these events, it should be said, evolved at a time when the wars of succession for Alexander’s Empire finally settled down.

Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis

Arrian explicitly tells us that after the mutiny of his army at the Hyphasis River (modern Beas), Alexander ordered the construction of twelve altars to thank the gods for having led him this far as conqueror and to be a memorial for his own accomplishments. These altars must have been truly out of proportion, being “as high as the loftiest siege towers and even broader in proportion”. Each altar was dedicated to one of the Olympian gods: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysus.

[Ashoka  Pillar at Firoze Shah Kotla,Delhi]

King Chandragupta, who reigned from 321 to 297 BC and founded the first Indian Empire, has reportedly worshiped at these altars in memory of Alexander the Great. Plutarch tells us that in his time, nearly four centuries after Alexander, the local kings would still stop at these altars to sacrifice on them in the Greek fashion. Philostratus, in turn, mentions that Apollonius of Tyana (15-100 AD) visited India and saw the altars still intact and still could read the inscriptions. Pliny also knew of their existence, writing that “the Hyphasis was the limit of the marches of Alexander, who, however, crossed it, and dedicated altars on the further bank”. This statement is quite remarkable since this places the altars on the eastern bank of the Hyphasis, while Arrian seems to imply that they stood on the western bank.

The location of these altars triggers the discussion of whether Alexander and his men crossed the river or not. Was the Hyphasis River the exact cut-off point and were the altars erected at the exact point where Alexander’s troops mutinied? The early history in this part of the world is not too well-documented, yet we know that in 1616, the first pillars of Asoka were noticed by a traveling Englishman. He witnessed a superbly polished forty-foot-high monolithic pillar with an undeciphered inscription and assumed it was erected by nobody less than Alexander to celebrate his victory over Porus. Since then, we know that the inscription was made by King Asoka. 

New studies have indicated that the altars left by Alexander must have stood at the confluence of the Sutlej and the Beas (Hyphasis) rivers, taking into account that in ancient times their confluence was situated 40 miles below the present river junction. This point seems to coincide with the place where Feroz Shah, who was Sultan of Delhi in the 14^th century, found a pillar which he moved to his city. Now it seems that there are at least three such pillars standing in Delhi today. Pending a serious archaeological investigation, it is impossible to clarify the origin of these pillars. It seems, however, that based on Asoka’s own inscriptions, some of his pillars were not erected by him. This means that it is not impossible that Alexander the Great did, in fact, erect such grand pillars as part of the famous twelve altars.