The beauty of ancient glassware

I always loved Roman glassware. It is such a fragile material and it is amazing to see such a variety of shapes and models on display in so many museums. 

Glass was first produced around 1600 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia. To that effect, sand was mixed with salt, preferably natron as found in dry lake beds in Egypt. This mixture in the right proportions was heated in a kiln until it turned into glass. 

These rough glass chunks were acquired by craftsmen who melted them down and pressed them into molds, letting them cool off and harden to obtain the desired object. 

One of the earliest finds of glass ingots is known from the shipwreck of Uluburun. This ship went down in a storm in 1350 BC, i.e., shortly after 1600 BC when glass was first made. It yielded a precious cargo of all kinds including glass ingots colored with copper and cobalt (see: The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun). It must have been an extremely valuable part of the ship’s cargo. 

The oldest artifacts apparently were beads made of glass paste, generally by Phoenician artists going back to the 7^th-3^rd century BC found in Egypt. More recent Phoenician examples date from the 4^th-3^rd century BC exhibited at the Bardo Museum in Tunis. Typically, each bead shows a human head with big eyes and well-drawn facial details including a hairdo. 

At the small Airport Museum of Athens, there are glass beads from a necklace of the 5^th century BC decorated with the evil eye, retrieved from the local Twin Sanctuary. 

A Persian glass bowl was unearthed in Cuma, Italy, dating from 400-350 BC displayed at the British Museum in London. This means that the Persians understood the art of glass making, probably from Mesopotamian sources. 

Blown glass was a Roman invention from the 1^st century BC. This technique made it much easier to create objects as it required less time and less material. Where glassware initially was a product reserved for Egypt’s high society, it now become readily available to lower social classes. The items were more affordable and soon accessible to everyone all over the empire. As a result, archaeologists readily unearthed them in Greece, Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Italy, Libya, Tunisia, etc. The Römisch-Germanishes Museum in Cologne holds a rich and select assortment of artifacts, but many other museums also offer rare examples. 

The shapes and forms of the objects are endless: vases, jars, flasks, drinking glasses, pitchers, wine jugs, pyxides, perfume bottles, and even cinerary urns. A big cinerary glass urn from the 1^st-2^nd century AD is on display at the Bardo Museum, but the largest glass amphora was found in Olbia, dated to 150-80 BC, and is exhibited at the Altes Museum in Berlin. 

The most striking of all glassware and my personal favorites are the delicate blown glass vessels in the shape of a fish or galley. Also blue enameled vases, translucent and transparent ones, and bottles with fishnet decorations – all from the 1^st century AD discovered in Begram, Afghanistan. Of outstanding quality are the enameled and painted glass beakers made in Alexandria, Egypt, also found in Begram. The scenes are familiar as they represent Fighting Hoplites, an African hunt, and surprisingly, even the Rape of Europe, Ganymede and the Eagle. This impressive collection can be admired at the Musée Guimet in Paris.

Sadly, glassware rarely receives the attention it deserves because our eyes are mostly drawn towards larger works of art, such as statues and reliefs of people and gods we are familiar with. However, it certainly is rewarding to pay attention to these fine and fragile objects next time around.

Origin of the tin ingots from Uluburun

It largely remains an open question of how much Alexander knew about the lands he set out to conquer. The answer or answers keep amazing me. 

Imagine that Alexander was familiar with the trade routes of the precious minerals like copper and tin that existed nearly one thousand years before he was born. Today, we would say it is rather obvious, but is it? 

Merchants were always very innovative and perseverant in exploring and finding new markets for their goods to be sold at the highest prices. The shipwreck of Uluburun was a true eye-opener, exposing the variety of wares from distant countries that were traded mainly around the Mediterranean. 

In my earlier blog, The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun, I mentioned that the ship was on its way from Egypt to the Black Sea when it sank off the coast of Uluburun in modern Turkey. It carried, among others, 10 tons of copper ingots from Cyprus and an unspecified number of tin ingots from Persia. 

It was lengthy to bring the cargo from the Uluburun ship to the surface, as it took 22,430 dives. The precious finds are now safely exhibited inside the Museum of Bodrum Castle, surrounded by lively reconstructions of the ship’s haul. I somehow missed spotting the tin ingots as I focused on the copper and glass ingots instead. 

It is common knowledge that copper and tin are needed to make bronze. Since the second millennium BC, bronze has been in high demand to create tools and objects of prestige, but most of all for weapons. It is noteworthy that the Uluburun ship held enough metal to supply swords to 5,000 soldiers! 

A recent study published in The Past established that two-thirds of the 105 tin ingots originated from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, and one-third were traced back to Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. These two countries are roughly 3000 kilometers east of Uluburun! 

[Map: provided by Michael Frachetti/Washington University in St. Louis]

During the Bronze Age, the mines of Central Asia were local operations led by small mobile villagers. Tin from the Musiston mine traveled over rugged and rough terrain to Haifa - a distance of more than 3,000 km – before it was shipped across the Mediterranean.

Renewed display of the Carian Princess’ tomb in Halicarnassus

Bodrum Castle is the Underwater Archaeology Museum that holds the precious collection of the 3,500-years-old Uluburun shipwreck. Much less known are the separate buildings where the numismatic collection and the glasswork are exhibited. The eye-catcher, however, is the hall reserved for the Carian Princess.

Her tomb was found in 1989 with the skeleton still intact. She was lying with her arms crossed, surrounded by her grave goods that included a golden crown. Closer anthropological analysis revealed that she died when she was in her 40s and had at least one child. Based on the excellent condition of her teeth, it could be established that she enjoyed a good quality of life. The remains clearly belonged to a woman of high rank.

It was very tempting to attribute this tomb to Queen Ada, the youngest sister of King Mausolos. We will remember that after he died in 353 BC, it was his wife/sister Artemisia, who took over the rule of Caria. When she too died, the throne went to her younger brother, Idreus who had married his sister Ada. Idreus also died, and it was Ada’s turn to become Queen of Caria. But there was still another younger brother Pixodarus who hungered for power. He expelled the widowed Ada from Halicarnassus and she sought and found refuge in her stronghold of Alinda, further inland. Pixodarus aimed to befriend the Persians and ruled unofficially for a short while next to the Persian satrap Orontobates, who took over after Pixodarus’ death. This was the situation in Caria when Alexander the Great arrived at Halicarnassus in 334 BC.

Alexander besieged and eventually conquered Halicarnassus, and he generously handed Caria over to Queen Ada again. She ruled over her country till her death in 323 BC as she died in the same year as Alexander.

Further research about the lady in the sarcophagus has not been conclusive. It has been impossible to attribute the tomb to Queen Ada. That is the reason why it is safely called the Tomb of the Carian Princess.

The hall where these impressive remains are kept has now been refreshed and renewed according to the news published in the Hurriyet Daily News. What exactly has been changed in the setting or the presentation is unclear.

Thanks to facial reconstruction, this princess has been pieced together and until now she was meeting the visitor from the far end of the room. It was a very poignant encounter and I hope that she still gives that impression in the new setting. Said newspaper article does not include a picture of the renovated room but only states that with modern technology, visitors can download the photograph of the golden necklace and crown projected on the interactive screen via the QR Code.

Why can’t they share this picture on line, I wonder?

A good reason to visit Klazomenai

Klazomenai (or Clazomenae) was one of the many Greek cities that dotted the coast of Ionia, i.e. the western coast of Turkey. Originally the city was located on an island and it is said that Alexander the Great connected it with the mainland by building a causeway whose remains are still visible. It makes me wonder if this was an exercise in view of the major dam he built about a year later when he besieged Tyre.

Klazomenai, founded about 6,000 years ago, underwent the same fate as so many of its neighbors, suffering in the 5th century BC attacks from the Lydians subject to Athens till they revolted during the Peloponnesian War. In 387 BC the city fell under Persian rule, to be taken by Alexander when he arrived here in 334 BC. In Roman times, it became part of the province of Asia, enjoying an exceptional immunity from taxation. Most people may however link the city to the philosopher Anaxagoras of Clazomenea who was born here around 500 BC and the first to bring philosophy to Athens.

Since 2000, diving excavations at modern Klazomenai, roughly 20 miles west of Izmir, revealed the presence of many ship remains ranging from the 7th century BC to Ottoman time. An Ottoman ship from the 17th century, for instance, was transporting an estimated thousand plates from the Dutch Republic – proof of the heavy commercial exchanges that existed at that time. Plans are to start removing the Dutch plates which are believed to be really valuable. In a second step, the remaining parts of the ship will be brought to the surface, requiring their own restoration and conservation. In the end, the archaeologists hope to exhibit the ship with its plates inside, just as it was found originally.

This operation is not a first, of course, for the diving and reconstruction of the shipwreck of Uluburun, now at the Archaeological Museum of Bodrum (see The shipwreck of Kizilburun) and recent excavations at Yenikapi during the construction of Istanbul’s Marmaray Project served as examples. The authorities hope to exhibit the Ottoman ship from Klazomenai in nearby Urfa in a specially monitored room.

The wide range of rescued artifacts needs desalination before being exhibited, as they would otherwise easily disintegrate - a lengthy and meticulous job. To this purpose a new advanced laboratory will be opening next year. Meanwhile another ship has been located by fishermen about 400 meters from the excavation site, so there is more work to do. Eventually, the entire pier of Klazomenai, which is still underwater offshore, could be unearthed.

Klazomenai was famous for its olive oil and its painted terracotta sarcophagi that ranged among the finest of its kind in the 6th century BC. It is interesting to hear that it was here that the only surviving example of a level and weights press was found. It has recently been reconstructed through a close collaboration of Ege University, a Turkish olive oil exporter and local artisans resulting in the production of high quality oil even according to our modern standards. It’s hard to imagine.

The city was also prized for its garum (fermented fish sauce generally used as a spice) a delicacy that was especially valued by the Romans.

Another story about Klazomenai has come to us through Aristotle, who mentioned that its citizens were financial pioneers in economic history. When they suffered from a shortage of grain and money around 350 BC, the city officials called on the people to pass a resolution to loan them their oil supplies against interest. It so happened that they could purchase grain against the pledged security of the value of their oil.

Enough fascinating stories to go around and it is up to us to prove what is historically correct and what is not. For instance, I have no way to check the sources used by Wikipedia about Alexander building a causeway here and I personally have not heard about it before. It is entirely possible that he stopped at Klazomenai on his march along the west coast of Anatolia, so … who knows … Maybe there is somebody out there who can tell me?

[Pictures: Remains of a vessel dating from the seventh-century B.C Greek perfume vase in the form of a head of a helmeted warrior from Archaeology News Network]

The shipwreck of Kızılburun, Turkey

It was only recently that I heard the name Kızılburun for the first time. I already know the shipwreck from Uluburun on Turkey’s southwestern shores where a huge amount of treasures was recuperated which are now exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Bodrum, but the cargo ships from Kızılburun?

It didn’t take too long before I found out that the promontory of Kızılburun, meaning as much as Crimson Cape, is located a few miles southwest of Izmir. It seems to be a rather dangerous point for maritime traffic since, beside the so-called Column Wreck I’m interested in, at least five more wrecks have been located in the same area, including an amphora carrier from the 4th century BC, two Byzantine wrecks and a medieval millstone wreck. Sailing in antiquity, although frequent, was certainly not without risks!

Remains of a late Hellenistic ship were first discovered here in 1993. The ship was sailing from Proconnesos Island (near old Constantinople) with freshly quarried marble intended for the Temple of Apollo in Claros (about 40 miles from Kızılburun), but it sank before reaching its destination. On board were eight drums for an entire column and its capital in Doric style - an estimated total load of at least fifty tons! Until now, there has been little or no information about the quarrying process, the long-distance hauling by sea, and the lively marble constructions that occurred during Hellenistic times in Asia Minor, now Western Turkey, but this finding is changing all of this. Luckily, this wreck could be dated thanks to the amphoras found with the cargo to the late 2nd or 1st century BC, which is quite interesting as in those days, architects generally preferred Ionic or Corinthian columns. Divers identified a wide range of smaller artifacts also, including black glass bowls, oil lamps, and several types of amphoras.

During the 2006 diving season, underwater archaeologists located more than a dozen large marble blocks, several steles, a marble pedestal, and a 230-pound lead anchor stock, beside smaller items like plates, pans, cups, jugs, etc. They also lifted a cluster of intact amphoras of the typical Lamboglia type, the largest group on board this vessel, beside another set of amphoras made in ancient Colchis near the Black Sea.

The most difficult task then was to raise the massive marble column drums, each weighing between 6.5 and 7.5 tons! A system was developed whereby nylon straps put around the drum were attached to heavy-duty balloons. That year, the divers were able to salvage four of the eight columns. The remaining four as well as the Doric capital were lifted a year later, in 2007.

Interestingly next to the drum pile, portions of the ship’s secondary cargo have been discovered, i.e. large blocks probably to be used as building material; marble items like two large basins with pedestals, a roughly worked out but fine hand basin, and an unfinished stele; also some pottery and amphoras originating from Eastern Greece, the Adriatic, and even Egypt!

The tie with Claros occurred in due course. The column elements pointed towards a monumental construction and after serious investigations, archaeologists were able to make the connection with the nearby Temple of Apollo at Claros. This is where I’m getting all excited for when I was in Claros a few years ago, I was utterly amazed by the size of one of the drums lying in the grass. I even took a picture of it, leaving my camera cover on top of it to show the sheer size! Wow! At that time, there were approximately a dozen archaeologists at work, digging and removing dirt from a building next to the very temple. It may be worth another trip one of these days, just to see what the latest excavations have been revealing. By then, there might be more news about the ship’s construction itself, but I suppose this will take quite some time.

Progress of the excavations around Kızılburun can be followed via the link of the University of Texas, updated in 2008, and the one of National Geographic, updated in Feb 2009. 

[picture of the divers is from National Geographic]

Lycia, worth to be known

Lycia is located in southern Turkey, roughly the big bulge between Marmaris in the west and Antalya in the east. It is mostly a mountainous knob that is connected to the rest of Turkey by two valleys only, the Xanthos Valley in the west and the Finike Valley in the east. Even today, roads are scarce and follow the same valleys. The main east-west traffic follows the coastal road between Fethiye and Antalya, which is constantly improved but still a lengthy affair, although it offers spectacular views!

To me, this is a true shrine of snowy mountain tops, deep gorges, and a wealth of archaeological sites with an unsurpassed rich history, going way back in time.

The Lycians were referred to as the Luwian people in early eastern and Egyptian inscriptions, i.e., the Luqqu or Luqqa from the 2nd millennium BC. Lycia’s main source of income came from its forests and trade with the ships that navigated along its coastline. Neighboring kings from Caria and Lydia tried but failed to conquer Lycia until the Persians under the Achaemenids managed to impose themselves. Persian rule was fierce and ruthless, and Xanthos resisted heavily, preferring even mass suicide rather than submission to the enemy.

The occupation took a different turn when Mausolos, the King and satrap of Caria, took over, forming a kind of buffer between the Persians and the Lycians. In the 4th century BC, a certain Pericles tried to unite all Lycian cities under one central rule, without success. It was Alexander the Great who put a final end to the Persian occupation; at the same time, he also stopped the use of the Lycian language in favor of Greek. After Alexander’s premature death and the fight of his successors over the territories he conquered, Lycia came under the rule of the Egyptian Ptolemaic in 310 BC, and in 301 BC it was ruled by Lysimachos, King of Syria. But this kingdom would not live long enough either, and finally, by the beginning of the 2nd century BC, Lycia came under the control of Rhodes with the influence of Rome.

Yet Rhodes did not give the Lycians fair treatment, and after many complaints, Rome found it reasonable to grant them their freedom. At this point, the Lycian cities all agreed it was time to unite, and the Lycian League, as dreamed of by Pericles, became a reality. The six main cities: Xanthos, Pınara, Tlos, Patara, Myra, and Olympos, were the administrative, judicial, military, financial, and religious centers, and each received 3 votes in the meetings of the League. Most of the other cities had one vote each, while some very small cities shared 1 vote (for instance, Istlada, Apollonia, and Aperlai). Some cities and small federal states were allowed to mint their own coins, provided they bore the inscription ΛΥΚΙΩΝ ΚΟΙΝΩΝ. This must have been an enormous boost to the Lycians’ pride, leading to their prosperity (see: The World's first parliament building - Patara)

During the 1st century BC, Lycia, with the rest of Anatolia, became a Roman province, but this domination had its good side too, for Rome had the power and the means to protect them against pirates, for instance. When their plundering of commercial ships and coastal cities went beyond limits, Manlius Vulso decided to go after them both by land and sea – and he was successful! The trade routes were open once again, and the economy developed.

But then, in the wake of the murder of Julius Caesar, Brutus arrived in Lycia. Finding no support for his cause, he slaughtered the inhabitants of Xanthos (a repeat of what the Persians had done a few centuries before). A year later, Marc Antony took over, and luckily, he decided to rebuild the cities, especially Xanthos. With the reign of Augustus, peace returned, at last, reaching its heyday under Trajan and Hadrian.

Unfortunately, in 141 AD, Anatolia, including Lycia, was hit by a severe earthquake, destroying many cities. Thanks to the contributions of rich citizens like Opramoas of Rhodiapolis, every single city between Phaselis in the east and Telmessus in the west was rebuilt, and Lycia continued developing. But then it was hit again by a major earthquake on the 5^th of August 240 AD, and the cities were equally destroyed – yet no money seemed to have been available for their reconstruction, and the entire region slowly fell into decline. By the 5^th century, the Byzantine Empire was crumbling down, and soon afterward, the Arabs invaded the territory.

Each and every site is worth discovering and visiting. One of the most thrilling experiences you can plan is to go out there by boat and explore this mysterious and unforgiving land from the sea. Personally, I have sailed this coast on board the Almira with Peter Sommer Travels, an experience that will last forever. Time truly comes to a standstill, and I easily pictured how the Phoenicians, the Greeks, the Romans, the merchants, and the pirates navigated along this coastline. It is no surprise either to hear that the oldest shipwreck (1350 BC) has been found near Uluburun, approximately in the middle of the bulge. The entire cargo has been rescued and is now on display at the Museum of Bodrum – a true revelation!

But not only are the coastal cities and sites worth a visit, Lycia has lots of hidden treasures off the beaten tracks of tourists and/or further inland. Although I have mentioned a few cities above, it is utterly impossible to draw an exhaustive list. Maybe I’ll add just a few names like Rhodiapolis, Limyra, Arykanda, Chimera, Phellos, or Letoon …

The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun - Lycian Coast 9

Breakfast at 8.30 a.m. The captain checks the weather forecast, and we are in for more wind in the afternoon and definitely rain earlier in the day. This means we can forget today’s walk to Kyaenai, one of the most remarkable Lycian towns. Sad and very disappointing. Imagine, now that I can walk again, the walk is canceled! Besides, how will I ever manage to see Kyaenai? Well, there is nothing I can do about it. We should have made a better offering to the weather gods, I suppose?

The captain is very obliging and takes the Almira close under the north side of Kekova Island, where no diving or swimming is allowed and where we can plainly see the Byzantine remains at close range. The city dates back to the 5th century AD when pilgrims stopped here on their way to the Holy Land. The seashore buildings are now partially underwater; some have entirely collapsed, and others are still standing ashore, showing their proud remains. It is interesting to see the square holes in the walls where wooden beams held up the roof, one of the many cisterns, a staircase disappearing under water, or sewage run-off dropping vertically into the sea. Sometimes the contours of a house are outlined on the rock wall. By 655 or so, the city was raided and destroyed by the Arabs crusading in the name of Mohamed. It has been left behind precisely as we find it today, except that the northern side of Kekova is now slowly tilting downwards under sea level.

From here, we venture to open seas, and the waves gain in height and turn shallow. It feels like a rodeo ride by now, and it is wise to grab a hold before walking on deck. Then comes the rain! A true downpour. The full gale hits us as we all scramble to the galley. This is no joke, for many a seafarer has lost his life in these waters. We gather around the table below, watching the water rushing over the windows and feeling the wind pushing and pulling our gulet. The captain keeps her head in the wind as much as possible, but this is hard work.

The story of the oldest shipwreck ever found in these waters near Uluburun comes to my mind. When I was in Bodrum this spring, Peter took us to the museum to admire the relics and treasures of this ship that went down in a storm in 1350 BC.

Sitting cozily together in the galley, Peter (see: Peter Sommer Travels) relates the story again to our eager group. This is an opportunity to jot down the facts and figures I heard a few months ago. The wreck was found at a depth of 30 meters, and it took the expert divers 22,430 dives to bring the entire cargo to the surface as they could only stay down for 20 minutes at the time. The archaeologists figured out that the ship was on her way from Egypt to the Black Sea, loaded with her precious cargo: 234 copper ingots or 10 tons from Cyprus; tin ingots to make bronze (copper + tin) from Persia; a gold scarab of Nefertiti; golden pendants; the oldest book in the world, i.e., two wooden flaps coated with wax and tied together; lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; amphorae and pots for olive oil and wine; weapons, a bronze dagger, a trident; ivory and ebony from Syria; 175 glass ingots mixed with cobalt and turquoise for coloring also from Syria; 11 stone anchors; a silver bracelet; gold and silver jewelry scraps for melting; amber from the Baltic Sea; oil lamps; ostrich eggs from Africa; ropes and twines; a sound box for a lute made of tortoiseshell; weights for scales, etc. In my mind, I am back in the museum and vision the pieces mentally. Imagine the cargo of just one ship! How many more ships were sailing these seas? How many went down? How many anchored in these harbors, loading and unloading their precious cargo, exchanging goods and the latest news? It is challenging to picture how lively these harbors were in antiquity!

At last, we reach Kaş, and the captain knows how to maneuver his gulet between the welcoming arms of the jetties. All ends well. A loud applause for the captain and the crew! Hurray! Now that the gangway is lowered, we can go ashore as we please. It is still raining, and I enjoy a cup of Turkish coffee, waiting for the weather to clear up. Lunch will not be served before 1.30 p.m., so I have plenty of time anyway.

Kaş, once famous for its sponges, is not unpleasant, rising almost straight from the sea to the mountains around it. Around the harbor, the many souvenir shops offer a variety of articles that are the same everywhere, from the simple Turkish lucky-charm eye to Iznik tiles, from kilims and carpets to jewelry and all kinds of so-called antiques. Strolling up the main street, I suddenly come face to face with a full-size Lycian sarcophagus, where the street splits in two. Can you believe it? The old tree next to it seems to have grown over its entrails and somehow shelters the tomb with its awkward arms. This sarcophagus carries beautiful lion heads on the beams and an inscription in Lycian on the sides. It seems to be standing here since the 4th century BC! This means it has been looking down on the town’s daily life for 2,500 years! Just try to imagine what this means! I can’t.

I find the bookstore where they sell a map of Lycia. I wanted it to follow our travel route, including the Lycian Way, for I am having difficulty figuring out where I am. I look at the books about Lycia but see they are published in the UK. So I might get them cheaper, if not for the same price, without carrying them on the plane. I do look for a supermarket though, for if there is one thing I want to buy, it is tea (of course!). When that is done, I walk back to the harbor and come suddenly across another Lycian sarcophagus, less fancy than the one uptown but framed in pink laurel and overlooking the bay.

Click on the Label Lycian Coast to read the full story.