Plato and Atlantis

Plato wrote 35 Dialogues but two of his late Dialogues, “Timaeus” and “Critias”, are quite unique as they relate the history of Egypt to around 9,000 years before his time! That is where and when Atlantis is mentioned. Timaeus was a philosopher and astronomer from Locris in southern Italy, and Critias was an Athenian politician. 

Atlantis is, was, and will be very controversial. Yet, Plato’s tale is all we have to go by. As in every story or legend, there is always a base for some truth. To bring the Athenians in contact with Atlantis sounds far searched, but there is hope for the skeptics. 

In February 2022, Sotirios Sofias of the National Technical University of Athens published a very revealing study on the matter under the title “Atlantis: A real continent and not fiction according to the dialogues Timaeus and Critias of Plato”, which I will try to summarize hereafter. The author has analyzed the original ancient Greek text as recorded by Plato to match it with Google Earth's screenshots - with surprising results. Please remember that Plato was a pupil of Socrates (see: Plato, more than a philosopher). 

Critias, during a meeting with Socrates, Timaeus, and Hermocrates (general of Syracuse), describes the visit of Solon of Athens to Egyptian priests around 600 BC. On this occasion, the priests honored Athens in all its glory including the city’s victory over the people of Atlantis. The Atlanteans, they continued, lived on an island beyond the Pillars of Heracles and had conquered all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean and many others in the Mediterranean Sea, including Egypt. Yet, all the countries revolted against the aggressive Atlanteans, led by the Athenians, who were victorious. Atlantis suddenly disappeared after a terrible natural catastrophe. 

Modern technology shed a new perspective on Atlantis when in 2009 Google Earth revealed the outlines of a submerged formation about 600 kilometers northwest of the Canary Islands. The main feature appears as a manmade grid, which matches Solon’s “square” or “plain”,  the capital Atlantis as recorded by Plato.

Studying these images, Sotirios Sofias found that all the measurements of Atlantis noted by Plato are consistent with those visible in the Google Earth pictures. The stunning underwater square, whose sides are 140 kilometers long, is divided by channels following a perfectly recognizable Hippodamian plan. The water from the surrounding mountains flowed through the city’s canals to serve its needs in fresh water and as a transportation system for the Atlanteans. 

This city and the island of Atlantis disappeared after a severe cataclysm, destroying Athens at the same time, and the city's glory was forgotten. The large island of Atlantis sank to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, five kilometers deep! 

After an in-depth study of Plato’s text, Sotirios Sofias established that Atlantis was sitting on a super volcano similar to Yellowstone National Park in the US including the same kind of hot springs and therapeutic sources. Both sites have more in common than one would imagine as Critias describes a landscape resembling modern Yellowstone's beauty. He praises the fertile soil of Atlantis with its abundance of trees, fruit plants, and the variety of tamed and wild animals that populated the island! The island was also known for its minerals like gold, silver, copper, tin, etc. The inhabitants of Atlantis did not know they lived on top of a volcano, very much as the people of Pompeii did not know that the mountain on their horizon was a volcano.

The global cataclysm mentioned by Critias was, in fact, the eruption of this supervolcano in combination with the violent rotation of the earth's axis. Plato attributes this event to a meteorite or comet (which he calls Phaethon) that hit the earth. It caused the destruction of Atlantis, Athens, and all the nearby coastal cities and islands. The Egyptian priests told Solon that their country was saved thanks to the Nile. This is how the ancient texts of Atlantis were spared for 9000 years! Solon’s notes on Atlantis survived and were passed on to Plato via his uncle Critias. 

Plato clearly mentioned that the city was protected on the North side by high mountains. Google Earth has indeed located three submerged mountains of 4,000-4,500 meters that have moved 75 degrees counter-clockwise after these violent forces of nature occurred, erasing the island from view and memory. 

Another controversial subject is the shape and size of Atlantis. Solon mentioned that the island was narrow and extended from the coast of Spain to the present-day Antilles. It included islands like the Azores, which are the mountain peaks of the submerged Atlantis mentioned above. Critias provides details stating that the island's eastern end was opposite the Pillars of Heracles (Gibraltar), at Gadiriki (modern Cadis in Spain).  At the opposite end, it almost automatically takes us to the Lesser and Greater Caribbean Antilles and the Americas. 

Based on the measurements of Critias as compared to the geographic layout of Google Earth, Atlantis had an elongated shape like a banana. It was 4,500 kilometers long and 760 kilometers wide in its center. The western end of the island was only 1,000 kilometers away from the coast of South America, i.e., the distance an ancient ship could cover in one week. 

This reminds me of the news that made headlines several years ago about artifacts of Phoenician origin discovered in South America. Highly improbable, it was thought, and the wildest speculations followed! Presently, in light of the shape and size of Atlantis, the find is not outlandish at all! Sailing from the Mediterranean across the Atlantic Ocean along the south coast of Atlantis was extremely convenient as the ships could stop at so many ports on their way! When Atlantis disappeared, this communication route vanished and all memory of this once so-powerful kingdom was erased at the same time. 

Now there is the story of Atlantis everybody is familiar with a series of successive circles around a central island. Based on Critias’ account, this central island had a diameter of 1,000 meters. It was surrounded by two circles of land and three of water. This is the location of the Palace of Atlantis. The ditch around the central island was connected with a 9,500-meter-long canal to the sea. The total diameter of these combined circles was 5,000 meters! Hard to imagine! 

The Palace of Atlantis was the residence of the Major King. Critias noted that it was of astonishing size: 200 meters wide and 200 meters long, standing 100 meters tall. It was bigger than St Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Atlantis was divided into ten kingdoms, each with its own king, subordinate to the Major King, the direct descendant of Atlas, son of Poseidon, and founder of Atlantis. Solon said that the god was held in high esteem by the Atlanteans, as quoted by Critias: “They placed golden statues, the god (Poseidon) to be upright in his chariot, holding the reins of six winged horses, and this complex was so tall that it almost touched the top of the roof of the temple. Around him, seated on dolphins, there were a hundred Nereids along with innumerous other statues around, dedicated to exceptional individuals.” 

All the above takes me to Alexander, as I so often speculate about his knowledge of the world when he set out to conquer Asia. He, and his selected circle of friends, had been tutored by Aristotle, a pupil of Plato. In this light, history deserves to be rewritten. We should be aware that besides Alexander, all of his Companions and later generals and kings in their own right, were aware of a world much larger than we generally assume!

[All details with clear drawings and maps are made available by Sotirios Sofias in his study Atlantis: A real continent and not fiction according to the dialogues Timaeus and Critias of Plato]

Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum

The Villa dei Papiri as reconstructed in Malibu, California, got its name from the huge amount of papyrus scrolls found inside the house’s Library in Herculaneum. 

Unlike Pompeii, Herculaneum did not burn after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD but was buried under a meters-thick layer of pumice. That saved the Library of the Villa that once belonged to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law. The collection consists of more than 1800 papyrus scrolls and is considered the largest surviving library from Graeco-Roman antiquity. 

When the carbonized scrolls were discovered in the early 1800s, hopes were high to explore the long-lost literary works from antiquity. These scrolls were, however, very fragile and disintegrated as soon as they were touched. 

Attempts to open and unroll the rolls destroyed many of them, although some painstaking efforts by a monk revealed philosophical texts written in Greek. Three centuries later we are still trying to understand how to read the papyrus scrolls. 

In 2015, a process called micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was developed to virtually unwrap fragile scrolls. It was used successfully to digitally recover a burned Hebrew scroll. 

Hopes ran high to apply the same technique for the papyri of Herculaneum. Unfortunately, they present another challenge as these texts are written in carbon ink, called “lamp black”. This type of ink is not detected by the micro-CT imaging system and the writing becomes ‘invisible’. More in-depth studies and new ‘learning machines’ eventually opened the path to reading four passages inside the unopened carbonized scrolls. 

In order to read entire scrolls, two key technical problems need to be solved. The first is to trace the papyrus surface inside the scan of the scroll, which is called segmentation. For the time being, this can only be done manually and costs a fortune. The other issue is the scanning, which is currently carried out using a particle accelerator in England. This involves a precious conservator-supervised transfer of the scrolls, two at a time, from Naples to England! 

The entire process requires much more fine-tuning and careful planning to finally set up a workable and above all affordable technique – as the entire organization is very expensive. With a little luck, it is expected that the scanning and reading of the 300 scrolls from Naples could be completed in two to three years. 

This will be a huge step forward to disclose the contents of hitherto unknown books and even new titles. So much history, literature, philosophy, and poetry that remained buried for two thousand years would finally be available! This is absolutely mind-blowing! 

Yet, there may be hundreds or even thousands of scrolls still buried in the Library of the Villa dei Papiri and, who knows, elsewhere among the ruins of Herculaneum! As we know, excavations are time-consuming and will depend on the funds made available to that effect. Only time will tell.

[Pictures from Vesuvius Challenge]

The secret of Roman concrete

The splendor of Greek temples and theaters is not only visible to the onlooker but resides in the architectural technique itself, i.e., fitting the stone blocks together without using concrete. 

We don’t know who is responsible for the idea, but we think the Romans are the actual inventors of concrete – a modern material! Whether walking through the remains of cities like Pompeii, visiting amphitheaters, or stopping at the many aqueducts around the Mediterranean, we’ll see sturdy brick walls held together with layers of cement. In the glory days of Rome, these walls were all covered with marble slabs that were reused after the decline of the empire. 

To make their cement, the Romans mixed lime, shale, clay, and aggregate rocks to create a substance that we call cement today.

The material turned out to be so strong that it defied time (and, I dare say, their own expectations). Striking Roman buildings such as the Coliseum and the Pantheon in Rome (see: Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums) are still standing after two thousand years. I wonder if any of our modern buildings will have such a long life. 

A recent study revealed that Roman concrete contained calcium-rich deposits, known as “lime clasts,” which are considered impurities in modern concrete and thus removed. These clasts are a kind of millimeter size white chunks of rock that provide a self-healing capability. 

To find out how these lime clasts influenced Roman concrete, scientists produced samples of both Roman and modern cement using what is called “hot-mixed concrete.” After the material dried and hardened, they cracked the samples and poured water through the cracks. Two weeks later, it appeared that the cracks in the Roman example had completely restored themselves, and no water flowed through the material – a self-healing process. The modern concrete, lacking the lime clasts, never healed, and the water kept running through the cracks. 

Today’s environmentalists highly acclaim that the Roman type of concrete could reduce the impact of cement production on our environment and cut down carbon emissions. 

We had to reinvent the wheel! The Romans may not have been aware of air pollution, but instead of walking in their footsteps, we invented replacement procedures that are detrimental to our world.

Alexandria: Past Futures

Bozar in Brussels is presently hosting an exhibition about Alexandria that will run until January 8, 2023. 

The event covers the period from the foundation of the city by Alexander the Great in 333 BC to the 4^th century AD. After that date, Alexandria lived as a small fishing port, slowly sinking into the Mediterranean Sea. At the same time, the proud remains of the city disappeared under layers of sand and dust. 

Occasional Byzantine and Arabic travelers left us sketchy descriptions of the scant remains and the monuments built on top of the antique ruins. 

When Napoleon landed here in 1798, only a few columns hinted at earlier streets, and obelisks stood as reminiscent city markers. During this campaign, the Stone of Rosetta was discovered, a three-lingual decree issued in 196 BC, i.e., during Ptolemaic rule. The first two texts were written in ancient Egyptian, using hieroglyphs and Demotic script; the bottom section repeated the text in ancient Greek. We have to thank the Frenchman Champollion for deciphering the hitherto secret hieroglyphic signs, disclosing the history of a world that had been hidden for almost 13 centuries. 

The exhibition opens with a lovely bronze statuette of Alexander the Great, initially on horseback. I know the piece from many photographs, but this is the first time I have seen it on display. It is on loan from the Fondation Gandur pour l'Art, Geneva, and has been dated to Ptolemaic times between the 3^rd and the 1^st century BC. In my eyes, it is worth the visit by itself! 

Central to this exhibition is the Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. There is an interesting cardboard model made in the 19^th or 20^th century, but also two color drawings presented in a manuscript from the 16^th century by Muhammad Ibn-Abdal-Rahim kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris. The famous lighthouse is evidently pictured on several coins, like the beautiful example of Hadrian. On the reverse, Isis is holding a sail in front of the lighthouse (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, départment des Monnaies). 

A separate showcase is occupied by a delegation of the Ptolemaic dynasty. We recognize Berenice II, 246-222 BC, from Hermopolis Magna (Musée de Mariemont); a limestone Ptolemy III, 3^rd century BC (Antikensammlung in Kassel); and a well-polished basalt head of a Roman Emperor, 30 BC-68 AD (Louvre). 

Close by, there is the marble head of a charming Berenice II from the 3^rd century BC that displays traces of paint (Kassel Antikensammlung). She is set next to a Colossal limestone Royal with his typical Egyptian headdress, but with a face executed in pure Hellenistic style. A proof, if necessary, of the blending of both cultures. The Royal has been dated 305-222 BC (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum). 

Nothing is left of Alexandria’s Museum or its precious Library, meant to be a university and research center where great minds met and exchanged their knowledge. The list of philosophers, scientists, mathematicians, astronomers, geographers, physicians, botanists, and zoologists seems endless. 

For example, the exhibition highlights Ctesibius of Alexandria, who invented all kinds of complicated machines, including a water clock and a fire engine. 

Alexandria was famous for its high-standard craftsmen whose art showed in everyday objects such as those exhibited here and dating from the 1^st and 4^th century AD: a glass aryballos, a beaker, a fial, a few drinking glasses, and a finely polished onyx skyphos. Most remarkable, however, were the fascinating mosaics using tiny tesserae, making the scene look like a painting! The originals were apparently too delicate to be moved, but the visitor is treated to an excellent photograph instead. It is worthwhile to take a very close look! 

The Egyptian goddess Isis clearly lives on into Roman times, often assimilated to Aphrodite. Two remarkable original frescos from the 1^st century AD found in Pompeii illustrate her importance (National Archaeological Museum of Naples). 

The exhibition ends with a huge photograph called The Flood of the Nile, found in Palestrina, north of Rome. It is one of the largest Hellenistic mosaics from the 1^st century BC that once adorned the floor of a building on the Forum. It is a bird's-eye view of Egypt with illustrations of its natural history. The top of the picture corresponds to the sources of the Nile in Ethiopia and Nubia, populated by wild animals with their names written in Greek. At the center, we see a succession of temples in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman traditions. The bottom covers the busy Nile delta and harbor. The original mosaic is home to the National Archaeological Museum of Palestrina. It perfectly illustrates the excellent craftsmanship of Alexandrian artists working in Italy. 

Alexandria: Past Futures presents some 200 artifacts, which for the greater part come from lesser-known museums like that of Mariemont in Belgium, the Kassel Antikensammlung in Germany, the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, the Fondation Gandur pour l'Art of Geneva in Switzerland, the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris, the National Archaeological Museum of Palestrina in Italy, and several others.

Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

The Pantheon in Rome is recognized as the best-preserved Roman construction in the world. This statement, however, brings me back to Alexander and his Mausoleum in Alexandria, as discussed in my earlier blog, Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander. 

I explained how Alexander’s tomb inspired later kings and rulers to build their own Mausoleum. The same circular shape was declined in different ways, as described in said blog. However, the Pantheon in Rome used very distinct raw materials for its construction that were not available in the days of the Ptolemies when Alexander’s tomb was erected.  

The surviving Pantheon still makes a statement today, and its cupola resting on top of a circular supporting wall has puzzled architects and archaeologists for centuries. Today’s thorough analysis has shed new light on this monument. 

A temple-like front counting 16 monolith Corinthian columns gives access to the Pantheon proper with a diameter of 43.3 meters. The inscription on the front of the temple portico reading that Agrippa, the right arm of Augustus, built this Pantheon is misleading. Recent research has established that Augustus himself ordered the construction of the earliest Pantheon in 27 BC, which had a slightly wider façade. It faced his Mausoleum less than one kilometer away, built one year earlier, in 28 BC. It is noteworthy to keep in mind that both monuments stood outside the ancient city. 

This first Pantheon, dedicated to all the gods, was destroyed in the fire of Rome in 80 AD. Domitian rebuilt it soon enough, but it was burnt again in 110 AD. By that time, both Augustus and Agrippa were long dead. No reason – yet - to put Agrippa’s name on the façade. 

About ten years later, Hadrian built a new Pantheon on top of the charred remains of the previous versions. His building was made to last, and it did. The circular wall is six meters thick and robust enough to support the copula, 40 meters above the ground. The oculus, the opening at the center of the cupola, has a diameter of 8.70 meters. This opening, together with the rows of alcoves inside this cupola, helps to reduce its enormous weight. 

Examining the thin bricks covering the inside and outside concrete walls of the rotunda, scholars discovered that most were stamped with the name of Emperor Hadrian. The cement inside this 6-meter-thick wall is of a unique mix, using lava dust and fine lava gravel. This mixture was so strong that it was used henceforward all over the Roman Empire for the aqueducts, bridges, and other monumental buildings. As an extra, this cement was also waterproof and fireproof. Looking at the outside walls, one will notice many arches incorporated in its design, and their role was to reinforce the walls even further. 

This close examination of the Pantheon leads to further investigation of Hadrian's many monuments. The first visit goes to the Villa Hadriana in Tivoli, just outside Rome. The construction of this villa, which covered an area larger than Pompeii, probably started around 120 AD. It counted at least one thousand rooms and had an underground parking space for his chariots. A closer inspection revealed that the circular building on the central island, which is said to be the personal quarters of Hadrian, has the same diameter as the Pantheon. Speaking of megalomania! 

It transpires that Hadrian was not much loved by the Romans, although he was widely venerated elsewhere in the Empire. Trying to impose himself, he used Agrippa as a publicity stunt on the front of the Pantheon. In his days, 126 AD, the rotunda functioned as a court building. We’ll remember that Hadrian started the construction of his Mausoleum, the later Castel Sant’Angelo, in 130 BC (see: Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander). 

Stepping inside the Pantheon, any modern visitor will stop staring in awe at the oculus above their heads. Inevitably, the rain would fall onto the colorful marble floor. This floor was slightly tilted to drain the water through small apertures in the marble slabs and washed away in underground canals. By sunny weather, on the other hand, the light beam would illuminate the niches that once held statues and highlight parts of the marble floor. Hadrian had his statue in a prominent place inside the Pantheon. On April 24, the anniversary of the foundation of Rome, the sun would cover Emperor Hadrian with its godly rays. 

In 609 AD, the Pantheon was converted into a Christian Church dedicated to the Virgin Mary and all the Martyr Saints. This saved the precious building for posterity. In later centuries, it served as a model for the Basilica of the Vatican, Italy; the Panthéon in Paris, France; the Rotunda of the University of Virginia, USA; and many other public buildings all over the world. 

The Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki

Fitting the same list of circular buildings is the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki, which is still standing. Emperor Galerius built it in 306 AD as his Mausoleum, although it may have served as a Mausoleum for Constantine the Great, who died in 337. Soon after, it became a Christian Church dedicated to the Archangels. After the Ottoman invasion in 1590, Thessaloniki’s church cathedral became a mosque until they were ousted in 1912. This Rotunda is a recognizable copy of the Pantheon in Rome, although smaller. Its height nearly reaches 30 meters to the top of the dome, and the circle measures 24.5 meters in diameter. The dome, which initially had an oculus, is resting on walls that are 6.3 meters thick and built similarly to its example in Rome. The construction is made of bricks that were covered with marble slabs on the outside. However, the interior walls were decorated with early Byzantine mosaics in the 4th-6th century.

Although we have no hard proof that all these Pantheons and Mausoleums arose in the wake of Alexander’s now-lost tomb in Alexandria, the very idea remains very tempting. It is doubtful that Alexander conceived his tomb at any time, neither when he was in Alexandria nor in Babylon. The city of Alexandria was still under construction when the king died, which was why his body was temporarily placed in a tomb in Memphis. Ptolemy I or his son Philadelphus brought Alexander’s golden sarcophagus to his burial site in Alexandria, approximately between 298 and 274 BC. 

Amazingly, no description at all has survived about its exact location. The same mystery surrounds the king’s second grand burial site after Ptolemy IV Philopator had completed the construction of the imposing new Royal Mausoleum. Alexander’s body was moved sometime during his reign, between 221 and 204 BC, and was placed amidst the remains of other members of the Ptolemy dynasty. This necropolis with the Alexander Mausoleum was located somewhere in the middle of the city. Ancient testimonies remain very vague on the subject, and since most of the initial Alexandria lies four or five meters under the modern metropolis, it will not reappear soon.

In any case, the Mausoleum of Alexander existed from the third century BC till after the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who died in 138 AD. Crowds of people paid tribute to Alexander over the centuries and yet his tomb could not be located!

[Picture 1 from Tiqets.com - Picture 2 from Wikimedia - Picture 3 from Wikipedia - Picture 4 is mine - Picture 5 from Tiqets.com]

Ways to preserve mosaics

Most archaeological sites we can visit nowadays date from Roman times. In the 2nd century AD, Rome reached its apogee under the reign of the five "good" emperors: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. They constructed monumental public buildings, and the houses of the Roman citizens were also lavishly decorated, often with frescoed walls and telling mosaic floors. 

The best-known examples are the houses and villas in and around Pompeii and Herculaneum. Still, many sites in Greece (like Pella and Vergina) and Turkey (like Ephesos and Sagalassos) also treasure such striking walls and floors. 

Some mosaic floors are left in situ where they rightfully belong, in which case they need to be protected from the elements. Shelters for this purpose are then constructed. However, even these shelters need to be maintained, which is not always the case. 

Another way of protection is to cover the mosaics with a tarp held in place with a layer of gravel. This procedure requires less maintenance as only the edges have to be checked. Many curious visitors will be tempted to push the tarp and the gravel aside to look underneath. The mosaic floors are "eaten" away from the fringes without careful and repeated care. 

Anyway, this manner of preservation is a favorite among archaeologists because it requires little or no maintenance. However, plants' roots may damage and displace the tiny tesserae. 

The most appropriate way to save a mosaic is to remove it from its spot and entrust it to the care of a museum where it hopefully will be on display. 

Such removal is very time-consuming and expensive as the top layer of the tesserae has to be detached from the existing floor in one piece. For this purpose, archaeologists use a large wooden cylinder around which the mosaic is rolled face down. A facing of two layers of fabric and an adhesive are applied to prevent losing tesserae or damaging the surface during this tricky operation. The entire mosaic floor can then be moved to its new location using a panel of aluminum honeycomb and resin following the most recent techniques. 

When strolling through a museum, the visitor is seldom aware of the effort and delicate work involved in displaying the mosaics for us to enjoy. We better take a closer look next time we visit a museum!

There is more to Aegae than the Royal Palace and the Great Tumulus

Driving from modern Vergina towards the Royal Palace of Aegae, we take little notice of the open fields to our left, where the necropolis of ancient Aegae is waiting to be fully excavated. The very area is uninspiring as it consists of a succession of more or less conic bumps in the landscape. These are, in fact, mounds covering the tombs dating as far back as 1000 BC. The cemetery remained in use until the 2nd century BC. 

Proceeding further south, we encounter the Rhomaios Tomb and the Tomb of Eurydice, Alexander’s grandmother, a few meters onward. Further north lies an undefined Public Building and the so-called Hellenistic House and the Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods to the west

With its 8.50 meters, the Rhomaios Tomb is one of the longest tombs. It consists of two rooms, an antechamber, and the chamber proper. The antechamber measures 4.50 x 2.50 m and is 2.20 m high. A narrow band runs around the walls and is painted with flowers. The colors alternate on the deep blue background using combinations of red-blue, white-blue, yellow-blue successively, and again red-blue, etc. A marble door separates the antechamber from the main vaulted chamber, which is square (4.50x4.50 m) and 4.45 m high. Here too, a dark blue band decorates the walls, but it is plain blue this time. An impressive marble throne stands in the back of the tomb with a footstand and a kind of bed. The throne is remarkable because of its large size. It is decorated with small painted friezes in the lower part, and its armrests display sculpted sphinxes. 

This tomb has been totally robbed in antiquity, making dating very difficult. However, comparing its features and style to those of the nearby Palace, it has been possible to date it to the first half of the 3rd century BC. Last, but not least, it is essential to note that this tomb was never covered by a tumulus and that its location so close to the village is puzzling.

Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Tomb of Eurydice is another large burial monument, which appears to be the earliest known Macedonian tomb. As expected, this gravesite has been plundered in antiquity. However, based on the shards left behind, it could be dated to around 340 BC. The dating, the wealth of the tomb, and the dedications found in the nearby  Temple of Eukleia led us to believe that this grave belonged to Queen Eurydice, the mother of Alexander’s father. The monument is 10.60 m long and nearly 8m wide. It is divided into an antechamber and the chamber proper, which measures 5.50x4.40 m with a 5.80-meter-high vault. The chamber's back wall displays an elegant but straightforward Ionic façade of a Macedonian tomb whose stucco and architectural details have been well-preserved. The trompe-l’oeil painting reveals a central door flanked by two stucco windows separated by two pairs of Ionic half-columns. The frieze of flowers and the cornice of the entablature are painted in vivid blue, red, and green. Like in the Rhomaios Tomb, we find a richly decorated throne two meters high. The back of the seat surprises with a superbly painted panel showing the Underworld, with the gods Pluto and Persephone, standing in full majesty on a quadriga drawn by two white and two brown horses. The throne itself is decorated with reliefs, gilded flowers and animals, and even with statuettes of korai. 

Other remarkable tombs in the area are the Tomb of the Bella Farm (first half of the 3rd century BC) with its delicate facade paintings, the tomb on the Bloukas field (c. 200 BC), and the cist grave of Palatitsa (c. 350 BC) – none of which are open to the public. 

The Temple of Eukleia is situated some 80 meters north of Aegae’s theater and close to the road leading to the Palace. Not much of this sanctuary survived, but it could be established that it had a small pronaos of 4x2.5 m and a square naos of 4x4 m. Archaeologists assume that the pronaos was an open space because the bases for statues were found in the two corners of the naos and possibly flanking a sacrificial table. It is striking that the temple faced north. Along the west side of the temple, three bases for statues were found at regular intervals. On the face of the southernmost base, a valuable inscription was found, reading ΕΥΡΙΔΙΚΑ ΣΙΡΡΑ ΕΥΛΛΕΙΑ, in other words, ”Eurydice, daughter of Sirra (erected this statue) to Eukleia.” The finesse of the letter curving has helped to date the inscription to the second half of the 4th century BC. These elements indicate that Queen Eurydice dedicated her statue to the goddess Eukleia, worshiped in this temple. It is assumed that the other bases carried similar offerings by members of the royal family. 

Roughly 400 meters east of the Temple of Eukleia are the remains of the Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods. This archaic deity had a close relationship with the cult of Dionysus. By the early 6th century BC, the Mother of the Gods was linked with her Asian counterpart, Cybele. The goddess was worshiped with orgiastic dances and music. On votive reliefs and terracotta statuettes, she is depicted holding a large libation bowl in one hand and a large drum for the orgiastic dances in the other. Her head is crowned with a kind of fortress, referring to her role as goddess of cities and fortification walls.

Together with the information left by ancient writers, the remains of this Sanctuary reveal the importance of the cult. A large square building of 32x32 m has been unearthed in recent years. It contained separate rooms playing an essential role during initiation and worship. Various terracotta figures of the goddess, incense burners, vases, coins, loom weights, and all kinds of architectural relics from the earlier building from the 4th century BC have been found. The excavation showed that this sanctuary, destroyed by a severe fire around 150 BC, dates from Hellenistic times. 

A recent article in the Archaeology News Network mentions new studies of a large building complex close to the northwest gate of Aegae and the “queen’s burial cluster.” However, it is not clear whether this is close to the tombs mentioned above or the sanctuaries, but I suppose it is the case. 

The building complex from the 4th century BC has been associated with the worship of the royal family. It was built with stone from the nearby Mount Vermion and set up in successive square and rectangular rooms reaching 100 square meters. They are organized around a large courtyard. The space on the east side resembles a temple with a very large antechamber and two Doric columns on the courtyard side.

More exciting are the stamps carrying the Macedonian shield, which were also used on the coins by the Macedonian kings in Hellenistic times. Importantly, roof panels bearing the inscriptions AMYNTOΥ. This may refer to King Amyntas III, the husband of Eurydice and grandfather of Alexander. In any case, it testifies of a close relationship with the Macedonian royal family. Other tiles are imprinted with ΠΕΛΛΗΣ, indicating that this particular sacred building must have belonged to Amyntas, who was given the status of hero. A similar cult is known to have existed in Pydna. Moreover, the presence of Eurydice in her nearby temple cannot be a coincidence. 

Despite the thorough looting by the Roman general Metellus in 148 BC, extensive renovations occurred under Philip V during the late 3rd/early 2nd century BC. For instance, the walls are covered with painted plaster. The favorite color was purple, with touches of green and ochre, and the scenes are divided with reliefs, not unlike those known from  Pompeii. The floors are inlaid with marble, as seen in the Palace of Aegae. However, it could be established that the cracks and irregularities in the floor levels were due to catastrophic landslides in the 1st century AD. After a period of decline, the city of Aegae disappeared under the debris.

 It is clear that the cult of Alexander was kept alive and that the building complex was a way to confirm and legitimize his power and that of his successors.